English vs. Russian Adjectives

Introduction Paper structure The aim of this paper is to compare the adjectives in the two languages, namely English and Russian. The discussed issues include the formation of adjectives, their structure, morphology, meaning, role in sentences, and peculiarities of this part of speech in each language.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on English vs. Russian Adjectives specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This study will present the special features of Russian as of a Slavonic language. It will also compare the differences of adjectives use in English and Russian, and demonstrate them with different examples. In addition, the paper will show how the findings might be used in pedagogical practice in order to teach Russian. Russian as a Slavonic language Russian, as well as English, belongs to the Indo-European language family, which logically would have to point to a number of similar characteristics between the langu ages. However, in the more detailed specification, Russian belongs to a Slavonic group of languages, namely to its Eastern part. This group has a multitude of features which differ it from the other Indo-European languages. Besides using a different alphabet (Cyrillic), it also is a synthetic language, in contrast to English, which is analytical (Ivanov, 2007). This feature plays a key role in the grammatical structure of the language. The synthetic properties like the wide use of affixes, absence of a set word order pattern, dominance of active constructions over passive and use of impersonal constructions determine the way the words and sentences are being formed and used. This, in turn, means using an approach to morphology, syntax, and semantics, which is completely different from that used in English. Besides the developed morphological system, Slavonic languages have one more significant difference. It lies in the fact that the languages of this group use seven cases, unlike t he four used in English (Ivanov, 2007). They include nominative, prepositive, accusative, genitive, dative, instrumentive, and locative cases (Sussex, 2006). This peculiarity determines the complexity of the language structure, and explains major differences between the use of English and Russian parts of speech. All these attributes of Russian as of a Slavonic language should be taken into consideration while conducting a comparative study between the two languages.Advertising Looking for term paper on linguistics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Role of adjectives in Russian Due to the differences in language structures, the role of different parts of speech in Russian and English also differs. For instance, one should clearly understand, that while in analytical languages the predicative center (which usually consists of a noun and a verb) plays the key role, in synthetic languages such strict hierarchy is absent. This mean s that other parts of speech can be of no lesser significance. Adjectives in Russian have a number of features, which makes this part of speech one of the most important, the one capable of cooperating and agreeing with any other part of speech. In addition, Russian adjectives have a much more complex nature than the English ones, as it will be demonstrated later in this paper. Even though Sihombing (2008) argues that the morphological processes in English adjectives play an outstanding role in enriching the language, in fact there are only few affixes that can be used to change the form of an adjective. In contrast, the opportunities of Russian morphology suggest that the number of affixes to use is almost unlimited, which is combined with a complicated system of declension and gender agreement (Asarina, 2009). Therefore, correct use of an adjective in Russian demands a deep knowledge of the language. Comparison of Russian and English adjectives Morphological structure While compar ing the adjectives in Russian and English, the morphological aspect is the most controversial and voluminous. This is due to the fact, that, as it was already mentioned, Russian is a synthetic language, which points to the exceptional role of morphology for its parts of speech. Concerning adjectives, the first thing to mention should be the existence of short and long forms of adjectives (Matushansky, 2006). Besides some exceptions, all the adjectives in Russian can be used in the both forms, considering that short forms are treated as more formal. The forms are distinguished by certain endings added to the root, but their meaning remains unchanged in both cases (1): ОÐ ½Ã ° Ã'Æ'Ð ¼Ã ½Ã °. – She is smart. (short form)Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on English vs. Russian Adjectives specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More ОÐ ½Ã ° Ã'Æ'Ð ¼Ã ½Ã °Ã' . – She is smart. (long form) ОÐ ½ Ã' Æ'Ð ¼Ã'‘Ð ½. – He is smart. (short form) ОÐ ½ Ã'Æ'Ð ¼Ã ½Ã'‹Ð ¹. – He is smart. (long form) ОÐ ½Ã ¾ Ã'Æ'Ð ¼Ã ½Ã ¾. – It is smart. (short form) ОÐ ½Ã ¾ Ã'Æ'Ð ¼Ã ½Ã ¾Ã µ. – It is smart. (long form) ОÐ ½Ã ° Ð ±Ã ¾Ã »Ã'Å'Ð ½Ã °. – She is sick. (short form) ОÐ ½Ã ° Ð ±Ã ¾Ã »Ã'Å'Ð ½Ã °Ã' . – She is sick. (long form)Advertising Looking for term paper on linguistics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More ОÐ ½ Ð ±Ã ¾Ã »Ã µÃ ½. – He is sick. (short form) ОÐ ½ Ð ±Ã ¾Ã »Ã'Å'Ð ½Ã ¾Ã ¹. – He is sick. (long form) ОÐ ½Ã ¾ Ð ±Ã ¾Ã »Ã'Å'Ð ½Ã ¾. – It is sick. (short form) ОÐ ½Ã ¾ Ð ±Ã ¾Ã »Ã'Å'Ð ½Ã ¾Ã µ. – It is sick. (long form) This property can be to some extent compared to that of English short and long forms, such as (2): Medic-medical; Hypothetic-hypothetical; Idiomatic-idiomatical, but this only concerns the ic/ical endings. Despite the absence of difference in meaning of the long and short forms of adjectives, there is a difference in therir use. For instance, the short forms can only serve as a predicative adjective, while the long forms can also be used attributively (Levine, 2009). As it can be seen from the given examples, the masculine gender demands not only adding a certain ending for a short form, but breaking the previous morpheme with an inserted vowel. Therefore, in case one is not sure about how to create a correct short form for masculine adjectives, he or she should better use the long ones. What is more, attention should be paid to the movable word stress, which is sometimes placed on the initial syllable in masculine and neuter gender. The tendencies of stress change can only be observed in the Russian speaking environment. It is worth noting that the short forms of adjectives in Russian are unlikely to appear in imperative sentences (3): БÃ'Æ'Ð ´Ã'Å' Ã' Ã ¸Ã »Ã'Å'Ð ½Ã'‹Ð ¼, but not: БÃ'Æ'Ð ´Ã'Å' Ã' Ã ¸Ã »Ã µÃ ½ (Be strong); БÃ'Æ'Ð ´Ã'Å' Ð ºÃ'€Ð °Ã' Ã ¸Ã ²Ã'‹Ð ¼, but not: БÃ'Æ'Ð ´Ã'Å' Ð ºÃ'€Ð °Ã' Ã ¸Ã ² (Be beautiful). What is more, only long forms of adjectives in Russian can receive case (Matushansky, 2006), which makes this form dominant for most cases of use in a certain context. Degrees of comparison Just like in English, qualitative adjectives in Russian have comparative and superlative forms. Their formation pattern for regula r adjectives is similar to the one used in English, as far as in Russian there also are suffixes that can be add to denote the comparative and superlative forms, as well as words equal to â€Å"more† and â€Å"the most†, which can be placed before the adjective(4): Nominative form Comparative form Superlative form rich richer richest Ð ±Ã ¾Ã ³Ã °Ã'‚Ã'‹Ð ¹ Ð ±Ã ¾Ã ³Ã °Ã'‡Ð µ/ Ð ±Ã ¾Ã »Ã µÃ µÃ ±Ã ¾Ã ³Ã °Ã'‚Ã'‹Ð ¹ Ð ±Ã ¾Ã ³Ã °Ã'‚Ð µÃ ¹Ã'ˆÐ ¸Ã ¹/ Ã' Ã °Ã ¼Ã'‹Ð ¹Ã ±Ã ¾Ã ³Ã °Ã'‚Ã'‹Ð ¹ complicated morecomplicated the mostcomplicated Ã' Ã »Ã ¾Ã ¶Ã ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ Ã' Ã »Ã ¾Ã ¶Ã ½Ã µÃ µ/ Ð ±Ã ¾Ã »Ã µÃ µÃ' Ã »Ã ¾Ã ¶Ã ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ Ã' Ã »Ã ¾Ã ¶Ã ½Ã µÃ ¹Ã'ˆÐ ¸Ã ¹/ Ã' Ã °Ã ¼Ã'‹Ð ¹Ã' Ã »Ã ¾Ã ¶Ã ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ Thus, the English suffixes –er and –est correspond to such Russian suffixes, as –Ã'‡Ð µ, -Ã'‰Ð µ, -Ð ¶Ã µ, -Ã'ˆÐ µ, Ð µe, and some others, while t he words more and most in comparative structures correspond to Ð ±Ã ¾Ã »Ã µÃ µ and Ã' Ã °Ã ¼Ã'‹Ð ¹. However, in practical use a significant difference between the two languages is that in Russian most of the adjectives can have two variants in the comparative and superlative forms. Despite the fact that it is also possible for English, it is more typical for this language to apply only one of the form of comparative or superlative degree to a certain adjective. In addition, it is impossible to use the suffixes for creating comparative and superlative forms of long words such as important, while in Russian the number of syllables does not play any role in the formation of degrees of comparison. This once more points to the absence of strict limitations for morphological forms in synthetic languages. Interestingly, while the comparative form created by the word Ð ±Ã ¾Ã »Ã µÃ µ preserves its property of gender, the neighboring form created with the help of a correspondi ng suffix does will be common for all the three genders (5): ОÐ ½ Ð ±Ã ¾Ã »Ã µÃ µ Ã'Æ'Ð ¼Ã ½Ã'‹Ð ¹. (He is smarter) ОÐ ½Ã ° Ð ±Ã ¾Ã »Ã µÃ µ Ã'Æ'Ð ¼Ã ½Ã °Ã' . (She is smarter) ОÐ ½Ã ¾ Ð ±Ã ¾Ã »Ã µÃ µ Ã'Æ'Ð ¼Ã ½Ã ¾Ã µ. (It is smarter); But: ОÐ ½ Ã'Æ'Ð ¼Ã ½Ã µÃ µ. (He is smarter) ОÐ ½Ã ° Ã'Æ'Ð ¼Ã ½Ã µÃ µ. (She is smarter) ОÐ ½Ã ¾ Ã'Æ'Ð ¼Ã ½Ã µÃ µ. (It is smarter) Intensifying morphemes Analyzing the morphological peculiarities of English and Russian, it is impossible to miss such aspect as formation of affectionate diminutive forms of adjectives. This ability, in fact, is most developed in East Slavonic languages, and presents an exclusively wide range of morphemes that can be used with this purpose (Sussex, 2006). In English the use of diminution is not very spread, which is due to the analytical structure of this language. In fact, the only possible way to make and adjective sound â€Å"small† or â€Å"cuteâ €  is adding the suffix –y, for example as in good-goody. In addition, this suffix does not always denote diminution and can be used with different purposes. In comparison with English, Russian morphology offers a range of suffixes, which can be add to adjectives in order to achieve a certain stylistic effect. The most spread one is the suffix Ð ½Ã'Å'Ð º, which is used to denote the small size of a subject or show affectionate attitude to it (6): Ð ¥Ã ¾Ã'€Ð ¾Ã'ˆÐ ¸Ã ¹ (good) – Ã'…Ð ¾Ã'€Ð ¾Ã'ˆÐ µÃ ½Ã'Å'Ð ºÃ ¸Ã ¹ (good and small) Ðâ€"Ð µÃ »Ã'‘Ð ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ (green) – Ð ·Ã µÃ »Ã'‘Ð ½Ã µÃ ½Ã'Å'Ð ºÃ ¸Ã ¹ (green in a pleasant way) Ð ¢Ã ¾Ã ½Ã ºÃ ¸Ã ¹ (thin) – Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã ½Ã µÃ ½Ã'Å'Ð ºÃ ¸Ã ¹ (exquisitely thin) Ð ¡Ã'‚Ð °Ã'€Ã'‹Ð ¹ (old) – Ã' Ã'‚Ð °Ã'€Ð µÃ ½Ã'Å'Ð ºÃ ¸Ã ¹ (old and kind) Ð ¥Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ (cold) – Ã'…Ð ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã ½Ã µÃ ½Ã'Å'Ð ºÃ ¸Ã ¹ (ple asantly cold) In addition to the mentioned suffix Ð ½Ã'Å'Ð º, two more affixes can be added in the former position in order to express tender emotions. Namely, these suffixes include Ã'‘Ã'… and Ð ¾ (7): ÐÅ"Ð °Ã »Ã'‹Ð ¹ (small) – ÐÅ"Ð °Ã »Ã'‘Ã'…Ð ¾Ã ½Ã'Å'Ð ºÃ ¸Ã ¹ Ðâ€"Ð ¸Ã ²Ã ¾Ã ¹ (alive) – Ðâ€"Ð ¸Ã ²Ã'‘Ã'…Ð ¾Ã ½Ã'Å'Ð ºÃ ¸Ã ¹ Ð ¡Ã'‚Ð °Ã'€Ã'‹Ð ¹ (old) – Ð ¡Ã'‚Ð °Ã'€Ã'‘Ã'…Ð ¾Ã ½Ã'Å'Ð ºÃ ¸Ã ¹ What is more, it is typical for Russian language to use one and the same adjective twice at one time. In this case, it will constitute one word, which is usually written with a hyphen. This method is used in order to intensify the meaning of an adjective. Interestingly, both regular and diminutive forms of adjectives can be used with this purpose; in case the two forms are combined, the diminutive usually follows the regular form. Furthermore, the helping prefix Ð ¿Ã'€Ð µ can be used for the adjective used fo r the second time. The meaning of this morpheme also can be interpreted as â€Å"very†, or â€Å"much†, which explains the use of this prefix as a meaning intensifier. In the example below, all the possible variations of this tool will be demonstrated, bearing that each of the words will have the meaning of â€Å"very old†(8): Ð ¡Ã'‚Ð °Ã'€Ã'‹Ð ¹-Ã' Ã'‚Ð °Ã'€Ã'‹Ð ¹ Ð ¡Ã'‚Ð °Ã'€Ð µÃ ½Ã'Å'Ð ºÃ ¸Ã ¹-Ã' Ã'‚Ð °Ã'€Ð µÃ ½Ã'Å'Ð ºÃ ¸Ã ¹ Ð ¡Ã'‚Ð °Ã'€Ã'‹Ð ¹-Ã' Ã'‚Ð °Ã'€Ð µÃ ½Ã'Å'Ð ºÃ ¸Ã ¹ Ð ¡Ã'‚Ð °Ã'€Ã'‹Ð ¹-Ã' Ã'‚Ð °Ã'€Ã'‘Ã'…Ð ¾Ã ½Ã'Å'Ð ºÃ ¸Ã ¹ Ð ¡Ã'‚Ð °Ã'€Ã'‹Ð ¹-Ð ¿Ã'€Ð µÃ' Ã'‚Ð °Ã'€Ã'‹Ð ¹ Ð ¡Ã'‚Ð °Ã'€Ð µÃ ½Ã'Å'Ð ºÃ ¸Ã ¹-Ð ¿Ã'€Ð µÃ' Ã'‚Ð °Ã'€Ð µÃ ½Ã'Å'Ð ºÃ ¸Ã ¹ All the mentioned tools for diminution are not characteristic of English language, which increases the level of complexity of Russian for those studying it as a second language. The var ious suffixes and prefixes of different meanings in Russian are replaced by separate additional words like â€Å"very† or â€Å"rather† in English, which illustrates one of the key differences between the use of adjectives in different stylistic contexts in the two languages. Besides diminution, different stylistic contexts demand the effect of exaggeration from adjectives, which is also realized in Russian with the help of certain suffixes. To the most often used ones belong the suffixes Ã'Æ'Ã'‰, Ã'ŽÃ'‰, and Ð µÃ ½Ã ½ (9): БÐ ¾Ã »Ã'Å'Ã'ˆÐ ¾Ã ¹ (big) – Ð ±Ã ¾Ã »Ã'Å'Ã'ˆÃ'Æ'Ã'‰Ð ¸Ã ¹ Ð ¥Ã ¸Ã'‚Ã'€Ã'‹Ð ¹ (foxy) – Ã'…Ð ¸Ã'‚Ã'€Ã'ŽÃ'‰Ð ¸Ã ¹ Ð ¡Ã'‚Ã'€Ð °Ã'ˆÐ ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ (scary) – Ã' Ã'‚Ã'€Ð °Ã'ˆÐ ½Ã'ŽÃ'‰Ð ¸Ã ¹ ДÐ ¾Ã'€Ð ¾Ã ³Ã ¾Ã ¹ (expensive) – Ð ´Ã ¾Ã'€Ð ¾Ã ³Ã'Æ'Ã'‰Ð ¸Ã ¹ Ð ¨Ã ¸Ã'€Ð ¾Ã ºÃ ¸Ã ¹ (wide) – Ã'ˆÐ ¸Ã'€Ð ¾Ã'‡Ð µÃ ½Ã ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ Ð ¡Ã'‚Ð °Ã'€Ã'‹Ð ¹ (old) – Ã' Ã'‚Ð °Ã'€Ð µÃ ½Ã ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ БÐ ¾Ã ³Ã °Ã'‚Ã'‹Ð ¹ (rich) – Ð ±Ã ¾Ã ³Ã °Ã'‚Ð µÃ ½Ã ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ Again, there are no such correspondent affixes in English, where the effect of exaggeration is usually achieved with the help of particles â€Å"too† or â€Å"very† put before the adjective. Deriving adverbs For the adjectives of both Russian and English languages it is typical to form adverbs with the help of certain derivative affixes. This process is usually realized in English language with the help of suffix ly, which corresponds to the Russian suffix o. However, while the derivation of adverbs in English demands simply adding the suffix, in Russian it is necessary to remove the ending first, and the suffix is added to the bare root. Let us consider some examples (10): Noun Adverb quick quickly Ð ±Ã'‹Ã' Ã'‚Ã'€Ã'‹Ð ¹ Ð ±Ã'‹Ã' Ã'‚Ã'€Ð ¾ interesting interestingly Ð ¸Ã  ½Ã'‚Ð µÃ'€Ð µÃ' Ã ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ Ð ¸Ã ½Ã'‚Ð µÃ'€Ð µÃ' Ã ½Ã ¾ abrupt abruptly Ã'€Ð µÃ ·Ã ºÃ ¸Ã ¹ Ã'€Ð µÃ ·Ã ºÃ ¾ It is worth denoting that derivation of adverbs is a property of qualitative, and not relational adjectives, in both languages. Semantics of adjectives As it is known, according to their meaning, adjectives can be divided into qualitative and relational. The former ones denote a certain quality of the object they modify, while the latter point to the relations between words (Levine, 2009). This subdivision is typical of both English and Russian adjectives, and it determines the meaning of these adjectives. However, the semantic functions of adjectives in English and in Russian are quite different. For instance, according to (Ikeya, 1995), in English adjectives are â€Å"basically a one-place predicate†. This explains the wide use of prepositional phrases which consist of an adjective and a preposition in English. Such phrases do not exist in Russian, where the system of prepositions is poorer and less significant. For this language it is more characteristic to have the adjectives strictly following or preceding the word they modify. This means the use of both attributive and predicative adjectives, which I also practiced in English. Therefore, some of the following adjective uses can be met in both languages, while the stable prepositional phrases are typical only of English language (11): It is a typicalmistake. Ð ­Ã'‚Ð ¾ Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã ¿Ã ¸Ã'‡Ð µÃ' Ã ºÃ °Ã' Ã ¾Ã'ˆÐ ¸Ã ±Ã ºÃ °. This mistake is typical. Ð ­Ã'‚Ð ° Ð ¾Ã'ˆÐ ¸Ã ±Ã ºÃ ° Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã ¿Ã ¸Ã'‡Ð µÃ' Ã ºÃ °Ã' . It is typical ofher to do so. – This is a goodboy. Ð ­Ã'‚Ð ¾ Ã'…Ð ¾Ã'€Ð ¾Ã'ˆÐ ¸Ã ¹Ã ¼Ã °Ã »Ã'Å'Ã'‡Ð ¸Ã º. This boy is good. Ð ­Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã'‚ Ð ¼Ã °Ã »Ã'Å'Ã'‡Ð ¸Ã º Ã'…Ð ¾Ã'€Ð ¾Ã'ˆÐ ¸Ã ¹/Ã'…Ð ¾Ã'€Ð ¾Ã'ˆ. It is good forhealth to jog. – This person is happy. Ð ­Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã'‚ Ã'‡Ð µÃ »Ã ¾Ã ²Ã µÃ º Ã' Ã'‡Ð °Ã' Ã'‚Ð »Ã ¸Ã ²Ã'‹Ð ¹/Ã' Ã'‡Ð °Ã' Ã'‚Ð »Ã ¸Ã ². This is a happy person. Ð ­Ã'‚Ð ¾ Ã' Ã'‡Ð °Ã' Ã'‚Ð »Ã ¸Ã ²Ã'‹Ð ¹Ã'‡Ð µÃ »Ã ¾Ã ²Ã µÃ º. I am happy tohelp you. – Apart from the semantic functions of adjectives, it is worth mentioning that many adjectives in English and Russian have more than one meaning, which means that they are polysemic. This quality is best realized in certain contextual environments, as far as besides the actual meanings there can be some denotative meanings, derived from certain cultural situations and beliefs. Obviously, only native speakers are capable of distinguishing the full range of meanings of one adjective, as far as it demands a deep knowledge of the cultural background of the spoken language. Let us consider several examples, which show how the multiple meanings of an adjective can coincide or differ in the two langu ages (12): Adjective Meanings poor not rich unhappy Ð ±Ã µÃ ´Ã ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ not rich unhappy blue of the color of the sky melancholy conservative (in Politics) Ð ³Ã ¾Ã »Ã'Æ'Ð ±Ã ¾Ã ¹ of the color of the sky homosexual wooden made of wood awkward in movement Ð ´Ã µÃ'€Ð µÃ ²Ã' Ã ½Ã ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ made of wood insensitive bad oriented in some area warm of high temperature enthusiastic containing yellow or red color Ã'‚Ã'‘Ð ¿Ã »Ã'‹Ð ¹ of high temperature enthusiastic pleasant containing yellow or red color the one that is heated (of a room) Syntactical peculiarities of adjectives It is a well-known fact that morphology, semantics, and syntax are tightly connecter to each other, as far as the structure of the word is always interdependent with its meaning and use in sentences. However, while the morphological and semantic features are lying on the surface of a language, the syntactical relations between words dem and a much deeper analysis. From the syntactical point of view, English adjectives are much simpler than the Russian ones. Indeed, an adjective in English does not change its form, regardless of the word it modifies. In contrast to this, Russian adjectives have to agree with the noun they modify in gender, number, and case (Levine, 2009). Agreement in gender Formally, there are three genders in both English and Russian languages; however, in English the property of one of the cases is only expressed by the pronouns he, she, it. The other parts of speech have no morphological features denoting gender. In comparison with English, Russian morphology provides a number of endings available to denote all three genders. For instance, feminine gender is expressed by the endings –Ð °, –Ã' , -Ð °Ã' , masculine – by the endings –Ã'‹Ð ¹, –Ð ¸Ã ¹, and neuter gender – with the ending –Ð µ. The situation becomes even more complicated consi dering that in Russian the division into genders is applied more often than in English. For instance, in English the abstract notions (like happiness, love, feeling), inanimate objects, animals, and many other words are of neuter gender, which determines referring to them as to â€Å"it†. In Russian practically all the notions have a certain gender, and the adjectives need to agree with them, which makes the task of forming a correct phrase of a combination of an adjective and a noun even more difficult. Let us compare some phrases of English and Russian (13): Hard life (neut) Ð ¢Ã' Ã ¶Ã'‘Ð »Ã °Ã' Ã ¶Ã ¸Ã ·Ã ½Ã'Å' (fem) Happy puppy (neut) Ð ¡Ã'‡Ð °Ã' Ã'‚Ð »Ã ¸Ã ²Ã'‹Ð ¹Ã'‰Ð µÃ ½Ã ¾Ã º (masc) Round plate (neut) КÃ'€Ã'Æ'Ð ³Ã »Ã °Ã' Ã'‚Ð °Ã'€Ð µÃ »Ã ºÃ ° (fem) Green grass (neut) Ðâ€"Ð µÃ »Ã µÃ ½Ã °Ã' Ã'‚Ã'€Ð °Ã ²Ã ° (fem) Kind boy (masc) ДÐ ¾Ã ±Ã'€Ã'‹Ð ¹Ã ¼Ã °Ã »Ã'Å'Ã'‡Ð ¸Ã º (masc) Beau tiful girl (fem) КÃ'€Ð °Ã' Ã ¸Ã ²Ã °Ã' Ã ´Ã µÃ ²Ã ¾Ã'‡Ð ºÃ ° (fem) Agreement in number Besides the property of gender, the adjectives both in Russian can be of singular and plural number. In English this subdivision is implied, but no obvious features of plurality or singularity are present. In Russian, the feature of plurality is expressed by the endings –Ã'‹Ð µ, –Ð ¸Ã µ. Correspondingly, when an adjective modifies a noun or pronoun, it should be of the same number as the word. Agreement in case The last important aspect in adjectival agreement with the modified word is the agreement in case. Similarly to the gender and number, English adjectives do not demand this kind of agreement to be realized. In contrast, Russian adjectives have to be of the same case as the words they modify. As it was mentioned before, Russian language offers seven cases instead those four of English, which means that there are more forms of adjectives, specifically their endings, depending on the case they are used in. What is more, the declension of adjectives is highly dependent on the consonant they are ending in. For instance, the adjectives with the stems ending in hard, soft, and unpaired consonants will have slight differences in endings changes in the process of declension (Levine, 2007). Let us consider each type separately. An adjective, which has its stem ending in a hard consonant will have the following form of declension (the empty boxes denote the same form as on the left) (14): Case/Gender Masculine Neuter Feminine Plural Nominative Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã ¾Ã ¹ Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã ¾Ã µ Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã °Ã'  Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã'‹Ð µ Accusative Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã ¾Ã ³Ã ¾ Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã ¾Ã ¹ Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã'‹Ð ¼Ã ¸ Genitive Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã ¾Ã ³Ã ¾ Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã ¾Ã ¹ Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã'‹Ã'… Prepositive Ð ¾ Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã ¾Ã ¼ Ð ¾ Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã ¾Ã ¹ Ð ¾ Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã'‹Ã'… Dative Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã ¾Ã ¼Ã'Æ' Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã ¾Ã ¹ Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã'‹Ð ¼ Instrumentative Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã'‹Ð ¼ Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã ¾Ã ¹ Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã'‹Ð ¼Ã ¸ Locative Ð ² Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã ¾Ã ¼ Ð ² Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã ¾Ã ¹ Ð ² Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã'‹Ã'… The stems ending in a soft consonant will have different forms (15): Case/Gender Masculine Neuter Feminine Plural Nominative Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã ¸Ã ¹ Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã µÃ µ Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã' Ã'  Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã ¸Ã µ Accusative Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã ¸Ã ¼ Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã'ŽÃ'Ž Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã ¸Ã'… Genitive Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã µÃ ³Ã ¾ Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã µÃ ¹ Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã ¸Ã'… Prepositive Ð ¾ Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã µÃ ¼ Ð ¾ Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã µÃ ¹ Ð ¾ Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã ¸Ã'… Dative Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã µÃ ¼Ã'Æ' Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã µÃ ¹ Ð »Ã µÃ'‚ Ð ½Ã ¸Ã ¼Ã ¸ Instrumentative Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã ¸Ã ¼ Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã µÃ ¹ Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã ¸Ã ¼Ã ¸ Locative Ð ² Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã µÃ ¼ Ð ² Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã µÃ ¹ Ð ² Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã ¸Ã'… In case a stem of an adjective ends in an unpaired consonant, the endings in declension will be the following (16): Case/Gender Masculine Neuter Feminine Plural Nominative Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð ¸Ã ¹ Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð ¾Ã µ Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð °Ã'  Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð ¸Ã µ Accusative Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð ¾Ã ³Ã ¾ Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ã'Æ'Ã'Ž Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð ¸Ã'… Genitive Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð ¾Ã ³Ã ¾ Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð ¾Ã ¹ Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð ¸Ã'… Prepositive Ð ¾ Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð ¾Ã ¼ Ð ¾ Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð ¾Ã ¹ Ð ¾ Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð ¸Ã'… Dative Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð ¾Ã ¼Ã'Æ' Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð ¾Ã ¹ Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð ¸Ã ¼ Instrumentative Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð ¸Ã ¼ Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð ¾Ã ¹ Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð ¸Ã ¼Ã ¸ Locative Ð ² Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð ¾Ã ¼ Ð ² Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð ¾Ã ¹ Ð ² Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð ¸Ã'… Pedagogical implications and applications As it can be seen from the presented study, the structures of English and Russian languages differ greatly. Therefore, while analyzing the adjectives of the two languages, all the differences in morphological, semantic, and syntactic structures have to be taken into consideration. The divergence of forms and meanings of Russian adjectives suggests that a teacher should not expect an easy perception of all the information about the Russian language by the students who learn it. First of all, in order to teach students to use Russian adjectives, the teacher should explain the students the property of gender. It is extremely important for the students to learn the basic endings typical of neuter, feminine, and masculine gender. Indeed, this knowledge will allow them not only to use the adjectives correctly, but also to recognize their belonging to a certain gender group in written and spoken forms , which means the increasing of language comprehension. In order to develop these skills in students, it is possible to offer them an exercise based on choosing an appropriate ending for a certain adjective, depending on the gender of the word it modifies. Gapped sentences or phrases can be very helpful in this case. The teacher should bear in mind the wide use of neuter gender in English, which is not observed in Russian. Due to this fact, students may find it difficult to get oriented in the Russian words in respect to their gender. Therefore, some exercises comparing the words of different genders in English and Russian can be developed. Declension of Russian adjectives is another problematic point, which can make the process of learning Russian complicated. The tables containing the needed examples and clear explanation of the material are the only tools that can be used in this case. The tables can be hung in the class room, in order to allow the students use it as a template w hile learning Russian adjectives. Only practical tasks can lead to the automatic use of adjectives in the right form. It is also important for the learners of Russian to know how to form different degrees of comparison. Since the rules of comparative and superlative forms formation in most cases coincide in English and Russian, it is enough to demonstrate the students the parallel constructions and offer them to practice on their own. The same method can be used to explain the position of adjectives in the sentence, which often is similar in the two languages. The use of short and long forms seems to cause no problems for the students, as far as the both forms have the same meanings. The long forms are with no doubt dominant, and play a greater grammatical role; however, in order to achieve a high level of Russian language use and comprehension, the students should know how to use the both forms. This knowledge can be derived from reading Russian literature, where both short and lon g forms of adjectives are being used. In this way, clear comprehension will turn into correct use in the future. As for the meanings of Russian adjectives, it is almost impossible to explain them all in a short course. However, in order to broaden the perception of the language by the students, it is necessary to give them idiomatic structures, phraseological units, and the adjectives used in proverbs and sayings. This will demonstrate the students the fact that there is more than one possible meaning for one adjective, and that in order to understand all the denotative meanings, an understanding of cultural environment of the language is needed. Conclusion This paper investigated the differences and similarities between the Russian and English adjectives, their forms and use. It is based on the broad analysis of the structures of the two languages, and on the deep analysis of an adjective as of a part of speech. The analysis of such aspects, as morphology, semantics, and syntax sho wed the relatively complicated nature of Russian adjectives comparing to the English ones. Wide use of affixes, change of endings depending on number, gender, case, stem ending, – all these features are untypical of English, and characteristic of Russian adjectives. This makes the gap between the languages deeper than that perceived on the general level, and sometimes proves an impediment to learning Russian for English-speaking people. Understanding of these differences is the condition needed for understanding the languages, and, as a consequence, for proper translation. The investigation showed that the problems with Russian adjectives most often occur because of their changing endings. Declension of Russian adjectives plays an outstanding role in the spoken and written language, and automatic correct use of the different forms is crucial for language use and comprehension. That is why, clear explanation of the rules should be combined with the methodologically suited prac tical tasks for effective learning of this part of speech. All these aspects should be taken into consideration by the pedagogical stuff dealing with teaching Russian. However, this study embraces only the main spheres of differences in the languages. Besides the studied problems, there are also archaic and borrowed forms, which have different rules of use in Russian. What is more, the field of semantics is so wide, that its analysis obviously cannot be limited with that presented in this paper. Adjective in practical use can be related to many other parts of speech. The relations of adjectives with nouns, verbs, pronouns, prepositions, as well as the role of adjectives in the sentence are the possible ways of investigation. In addition, while this study is focused on the differences between the adjectives of English and Russian, it could be useful to look for similarities between them. This would make it easier to understand the use of adjectives in each language and to learn one o f them as a second language. Reference List Asarina, A (2009). Gender and Adjective Agreement in Russian. Moscow: SLS 4th Annual Meeting. Ikeya, A (1995). Predicate-Argument Structure of English Adjectives. Amsterdam: Toyo Gakuen University. Ivanov, V, Browne, W (2007). Slavonic Languages. R. K. P. Web. Levine, J (2009). Shaum’s Outline of Russian Grammar, 2nd Edition. NY: Mcgraw Hill. Matushansky, O (2006). How to Be Short: Some Remarks on the Syntax of Russian Adjectives. Paris: IUMR Seminar. Sihombing, K (2008). The Morphological Processes of English Adjectives. A Thesis. Faculty of Letters: English Department. Depok: Gunadarma University. Sussex, R, Cubberley, P (2006) The Slavic Languages. In Cubberley, P (2006) Russian: A Linguistic Introduction. London: Cambridge University Press. This term paper on English vs. Russian Adjectives was written and submitted by user Jason Day to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Free Essays on Salvation In Unexpected Ways

Salvation in Unexpected Ways Three novels that stand out because of their main character’s contributions to others are â€Å"The Color Purple† by Alice Walker, â€Å"One Flew Over The Cuckoo’s Nest† by Ken Kesey, and â€Å"Sula† by Toni Morrison. The main characters Celie, R.P. McMurphy, and Sula, each contribute something different to important people in their lives in the novels which they appear. Although they play very different roles, Celie, McMurphy, and Sula are viewed as heroes. R.P. McMurphy inspires the men in the mental ward to become stronger emotionally; Sula inspires the people of her town to think differently, while Celie physically protects her sister from abuse. In â€Å"One Flew Over The Cuckoo’s Nest† by Ken Kesey, Randle Patrick McMurphy helps the men in the ward to overcome their fear of the world they live in. One morning, as the men in the ward are eating, McMurphy is laughing and talking throughout the entire breakfast. Chief Bromden says, â€Å"He’s being the clown, working at getting some of the guys to laugh† (Kesey 98). The other men on the ward are anguished and have not been in contact with someone who is trying to lift their spirits. McMurphy talks to the men as if they are not in an institution at all, but rather like they are normal people. Through McMurphy’s communication with the men, they begin to realize that there is hope for them in the outside world and they begin to recuperate emotionally. In the novel â€Å"Sula† by Toni Morrison, the main character Sula’s illicit behavior and attitudes toward men cause the women of the community to love their husbands more. Sula sleeps with the women’s husbands and has no regard for them, basically using them for sex and leaving them. Because of Sula’s promiscuity the women begin to think differently, â€Å"So the women, to justif... Free Essays on Salvation In Unexpected Ways Free Essays on Salvation In Unexpected Ways Salvation in Unexpected Ways Three novels that stand out because of their main character’s contributions to others are â€Å"The Color Purple† by Alice Walker, â€Å"One Flew Over The Cuckoo’s Nest† by Ken Kesey, and â€Å"Sula† by Toni Morrison. The main characters Celie, R.P. McMurphy, and Sula, each contribute something different to important people in their lives in the novels which they appear. Although they play very different roles, Celie, McMurphy, and Sula are viewed as heroes. R.P. McMurphy inspires the men in the mental ward to become stronger emotionally; Sula inspires the people of her town to think differently, while Celie physically protects her sister from abuse. In â€Å"One Flew Over The Cuckoo’s Nest† by Ken Kesey, Randle Patrick McMurphy helps the men in the ward to overcome their fear of the world they live in. One morning, as the men in the ward are eating, McMurphy is laughing and talking throughout the entire breakfast. Chief Bromden says, â€Å"He’s being the clown, working at getting some of the guys to laugh† (Kesey 98). The other men on the ward are anguished and have not been in contact with someone who is trying to lift their spirits. McMurphy talks to the men as if they are not in an institution at all, but rather like they are normal people. Through McMurphy’s communication with the men, they begin to realize that there is hope for them in the outside world and they begin to recuperate emotionally. In the novel â€Å"Sula† by Toni Morrison, the main character Sula’s illicit behavior and attitudes toward men cause the women of the community to love their husbands more. Sula sleeps with the women’s husbands and has no regard for them, basically using them for sex and leaving them. Because of Sula’s promiscuity the women begin to think differently, â€Å"So the women, to justif...

Network Intrusion Detection and Forensics Dissertation

Network Intrusion Detection and Forensics - Dissertation Example The paper tells that computers have come to assume in all aspects of our lives, and the lack of reliable networks in modern computing environments in plainly inconceivable. The supremacy of information technology in running many modern systems hinges on the continued reliability of computer networks. Without stable computer network systems, many simple computing activities we have come to assume as part of our daily routines: sending emails, browsing the web, making business communications, and maintaining social contacts would be in severe jeopardy. Malicious use of computer networks would completely compromise our computing experience and the utilization of these indispensable network tools. Network Intrusion Detection Systems (NIDS) are partly the reason behind the continued security in computer systems around the world. The NIDS systems detect illicit use of computer networks, alert network administrators, create reports in the system through their logging abilities, and try to p revent harm to the network by malevolent network users. However, many users of computer networks lack access to decent NIDS systems available commercially. Part of the reason why many computer users stave off the commercially available NIDS systems is the prohibitively costs. Another reason for the unattractiveness of several commercial network-based IDS is traceable to their complex deployment, configuration, and implementation procedures, which normally require technical assistance. Over the past decade, open source NIDS systems have come to define the NIDS landscape. Currently, the leading NIDS system in terms of user base been Snort, a lightweight open source NIDS. The purpose of this project is to make comprehensive comparison of two open source NIDS, Snort and Bro. Keywords: Snort, Bro, NIDS, Table of Contents Abstract 2 Table of Contents 3 1.INTRODUCTION 4 2.BACKGROUND TO THE PROBLEM 5 3.OVERVIEW OF NETWORK INTRUSION DETECTION SYSTEMS 5 3.1 The Roles of NIDS 5 3.2 Difference of NIDS with Firewalls 7 3.3 Limitations of the Network Intrusion Detection Systems 7 3.4 Network Intrusion and Detection System Alert Terminologies 8 4.RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN INTRUSION DETECTION SYSTEMS 9 5.DIFFERENT METHODS OF INTRUSION DETECTION 10 5.1 Statistical Anomaly-Based Intrusion System 10 5.2 Signature-Based Intrusion Detection 10 6.NETWORK INTRUSION DETECTION SYSTEMS 11 6.1 Snort 11 6.2 Bro 11 6.3 PHAD 11 6.4 NetSTAT 12 6.5 EMERALD 12 6.6 Suricata 13 7.TESTING AND EVALUATION METHODOLOGY 13 8.ANALYSIS OF SNORT AND BRO 14 8.3 Common Characteristics of Snort, Bro, Suricata, and NetSTAT 16 8.4 Differences between Snort, Bro, Suricata, and NetSTAT 17 8.5 Major Strengths of Snort 19 8.6 Major strengths of Bro 21 8.7 Major strengths of Suricata 21 8.8 Major strengths of NetSTAT 22 8.9 Major Weaknesses of Snort 22 8.10 Major Weaknesses of Bro 22 8.11 Major weaknesses of Suricata 23 8.12 Major weaknesses of NetSTAT 23 9. RESULTS FOR SNORT AND BRO 23 9.1 Capabilities of Snort and Bro to Identify Security Threats and Network Violations 23 9.1.1 Bro Architecture 23 9.1.2 Bro Network Intrusion Detection Mechanism 25 9.1.3 Snort Architecture 26 9.1.4 Snort Network Intrusion Detection Mechanism 26 9.1.5 Suricata’s Network Intrusion Mechanism 27 9.1.6 NetSTAT Capabilities to detect security threats and network violations 28 9.2 Comparison of Snort’s, Bro’s, Suricata’s and NetSTAT’s Performance 28 10. RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS 29 10.1 Recommendations 29 10.2 Conclusions 30 References 33 1. INTRODUCTION The essentiality of network protection is unquestionable, especially with the ever-growing relevance of computer networks in many facets of our society. Many things, ranging from trade, governance, education, communication, and research rely heavily on computer networks. The vulnerability of networks to breakdowns after attack can be expensive and disastrous.

MGT506 - Strategic Leadership, Mod 5 Case Assignment Essay

MGT506 - Strategic Leadership, Mod 5 Case Assignment - Essay Example The implication is that a leader must always lead by example which is expressed by doing that which is expected to be done in the correct way and time so that he rest of the population being led can follow the example and do things the way he has done them. Shamir defines a leader as a person that is considered the best in doing something or carrying out an activity, that a leader is the head of an organization or a country and is one that is considered the best in doing things that are supposed to be done by the people or group he or she is leading. He adds that the term leader refers to one who is in front of a group and is responsible for the actions of the group (Shamir, 1991). To this extent therefore what Shamir is trying to imply is that a leader must ensure that the people he or she is leading do the right thing all the times. Good leaders in essence act as mirrors to those that they lead which is a reflection of what the people should do even in the absence of the leader. He is the root map that people view to get the right direction to follow in order to make straight their progress in life, the Pacesetters in everything that goes on in the community around them. A good leader as Shamir would put it is visionary in the sense that he or she leads the people towards the realization if they're set dreams for a better future and a better life in the times to come (Shamir, 1991) . A number of people in the world have satisfied this definition and proved their worth to fall in the list most successful and honored leaders of the world given their excellent performance and determination in leadership positions. This paper is going to examine the qualities of a good leader and define the requirements for good leadership with reference to the example of the former South African Anti- Apartheid activist and president, Nelson Mandela. Nelson Mandela As a Visionary Leader Nelson Mandela was born on July 18th 1918 in the current republic of South Africa. He was ado pted by the king of the Thembu tribe of South Africa after his father’s death just a few years after his resignation from the British employment (Mandela, 1994). While growing up among the king’s children, Nelson Mandela learned of the styles of leadership from the way the king used to handle cases brought to him from various regions within his kingdom. He also learned of the mode of relationship that the king had with the neighboring kingdoms in a bid to create peace and unity with the neighbors. In essence, the excellent style of leadership that Nelson Mandela portrayed as the first black president of the new republic of South Africa was learnt in this context right at the king's palace in the Thembu kingdom. (Waldman, 2006) David A Waldman in his journal article entitled Cultural and leadership predictors of corporate social responsibility values of top management: a GLOBE study of 15 countries defines leadership in the context of taking collective social responsibi lity taken at three levels. Of prime importance in this case is the dimension concerned with the community or state welfare, which he argues extends beyond just a particular stakeholder group include the larger societal entity which involves such values and actions as

Theories in Comparative Politics

Theories in Comparative Politics Michelle Elaine Mora Take Home Final Exam Section I: Identifications Necessary and Sufficient Conditions Necessary and sufficient conditions are causation conditions that became known as Mills Method.[1] Necessary and sufficient conditions are significant because they allow a scientific/cause/effect way to study politics. A necessary condition is defined as a circumstance where the absence in an event, the event cannot occur. It can also be present in the event, but the event can still not occur. For example, gas has to be present to start a car, but a car could still possibly not start if gas is present. A sufficient condition is defined as if the cause is present, the event must occur. The event could possibly still occur without the cause though. For example, if an alarm goes off in the morning, the person will wake up, put it is possible that the person will wake up regardless of the alarm clock. Necessary and sufficient condition is that the event will occur, if and only if, the cause is present. Social vs. Liberal Market Economy-Social market economy is defined as an economic system in which industry and commerce are run by private enterprise within limits set by the government to ensure equality of opportunity and social and environmental responsibility.[2] Features in a social market economy, are that it has highly coordinated business communities, strong unions, collective bargaining systems for wages, benefits and other workplace rights. A social market economy works in a large welfare state where there are extensive public precision of social welfare and employment protection. Example of a social market economies are Germany and Finland. A liberal market economy is one that is non-market based coordination; it allows for free market without government intervention. Features of a liberal market economy are it is uncoordinated, has a competitive business environment, weak union, utilizes fragment bargaining with labor and capital, and is a residual welfare state. Examples of a liberal market economy is the US and Canada.[3] Social and liberal economies are important because they provide two different ways to approach economy. Dictators Dilemma The dictator’s dilemma is defined as an authoritarian’s ruler’s repression on its citizens creates fear, which then breeds uncertainty about how such support the ruler has. In response, the rulers spend more resources than is ration to co-opt the opposition. The greater the repression, the greater the dilemma.[4] The dictator spends multiple resources on areas where they feel may have some sort of threat to the regime. An example of the dictator’s dilemma is in African authoritarian regimes in the 1960s and 70s, certain areas were lavished with infrastructure for the dictator to gain support. The dictators dilemma is significant because it explains how dictators never truly know how much support they have and helps understand how dictators try and gain/keep support for themselves to remain dictators. Cap and Trade System-The cap and trade systems, which is an incentive based system, is defined as a market based pollution control system in which the government sets an overall limit on how much pollution is acceptable and issues vouchers to pollute, to each company. Then each company is free to trade their vouchers.[5] For example, if one company faces high costs to reduce their pollution levels they can buy more pollution vouchers from other companies that are able to have low pollution levels at a low cost. Critique of the cap and trade system is that there will be a high level of pollution at certain sources. For example, if a company has high pollution vouchers and are located up river, the down river will have a high concentration of pollution. The cap and trade system is significant because it is one of the most successful incentive systems and it keeps pollution low. Four Types of Welfare Policy There are four types of welfare policy: means-testing, universal entitlements, social insurance, and tax expenditures. Means testing is when someone receives assistance because they have fallen below a certain income line. Means testing policy is funded through general taxation. Many know means testing as â€Å"welfare.† Examples of means testing in the US are SNAP and TANF. Universal entitlements benefits that all citizens receive equally. Universal entitlements are funded through general taxation, as everyone benefits from the policy. An example of universal entitlements in the US is education. As education level goes up, poverty goes down, benefiting every tax payer. Social insurance provides benefits to categories of people who have contributed to the public insurance fund. Examples of public insurance are social security, unemployment insurance, and disability. What people pay in, they get out. Tax expenditures are when the government gives th e citizen a tax break and does not collect taxes for a specific reason. Tax breaks are not paid for by direct government spending, rather by not receiving that money at all. It allows for a citizen to have more disposable income. An example of tax expenditures in the US is the earned income tax credit which aims to lower poverty. [6] Welfare policy is significant because it helps the general welfare of the state. Section II: Essays Essay 1- Comparative politics is defined as the study and comparison of domestic politics across countries.[7] Politics is defined as the struggle in any group for power that will give one or more persons the ability to make decisions for the larger group.[8] How we study politics has changed over the years and dramatic changes have occurred within the last fifty years alone. Greek philosopher Aristotle is seen as the first person to study politics as a science, but is politics really a science? In the beginning years, scholars who would study politics and government would study it in the same way as philosophy. Scholars mainly focused on describing the government rather than comparing, making generalizations, or offering solutions to problems within politics. This began to change with Aristotle began to research government. Aristotle began to compare research on existing political systems; he compared one hundred fifty-eight Greek city-states and determined the ideal political system. This was an empirical approach that could be verified and retested, making this the first scientific approach to politics.[9] It wasn’t until Nicolli Machiavelli that that the modern day scientific approach to political research began, 1,800 years after Aristotle’s research. Machiavelli’s approach wished to research different political systems of modern day governments but also to compare them to those of the past. Machiavelli then made generalizations about success and fa ilures of different political systems. Machiavelli work then offered solutions to predecessor’s mistakes. Machiavelli’s work was also empirical.[10] Even though Machiavelli is known as the first modern political scientist it wasn’t until the behavioral revolution in 1950-1960’s that scholars began to create theories and generalizations that could help explain and even predict political activity.[11] Throughout history the way politics is studied has changed dramatically, but is studying politics in a scientific way possible? Is it really science? Simply stated, yes, politics can be studied as a science. One can create a hypothesis, come to conclusions through qualitative or quantitative research, have independent and dependent variables, and make recommendations based on research all by using the same scientific method used in hard sciences such as biology and chemistry. An example of research using the scientific method is â€Å"The Correlates of Nuclear Proliferation: A Quantitative Test,† by Sonali Singh and Christopher R. Way. Researchers Singh and Way’s hypothesis is that there are three different stages on the path to weaponization of nuclear weapons technology. They then created dependent and independent variables (democracy and democratization economic interdependence and liberalization, statues inconsistency/symbolic motivations). The authors then did quantitative testing with statistical methods and came to the conclusion that nuclear weapons proliferation is strongly associated with the level of econo mic development, the external threat environment, lack of great power security guarantees, an low level of integration in the world economy.[12] Through this example, one can see how the scientific method can be applied to political/ comparative research as well. There are some disadvantages to doing political research as a science. For example, it is possible that there is selection bias, there are limited numbers of cases, unable to control variables, unable to make cause/effect relationship, and access to cases is limited. Even though there are disadvantages to studying politics as a science, the advantages of being able to draw conclusions and make recommendations on policy, government systems, etc, it is the most appropriate way to study politics and comparative politics. Essay 2- One of the greatest policy challenges facing is post-colonial states is political sovereignty. Globalization, as it is a form of imperialism, makes this problem harder to solve because of its history within these countries and there current presence or non-presence in some. Globalization is defined as a process whereby extensive and intensive webs of relationships connect people across time and space. In countries such as those in Latin America who lived under Spain when they were colonized then soon after gaining independence were imperialized by the united states have struggled to maintain a democracy and maintain political sovereignty without third world countries trying to step in and create their own forms of government or play big brother to these countries, ultimately leaving them worse off than they were before. Some challenges that these countries face in globalization in post colonialism include such things as setting up their own democracy, creating their own economy, and attempting to prosper in a fast growing third world. They also had conflicts over nation, ethnicity, religion, gender, and equality. The biggest challenge is how these countries keep their political sovereignty without letting globalization affect them. [1] W. R. Clark, M. Golder, and S. N. Golder, Principles of  Comparative Politics.CQ Press, (Washington D.C, 2009), 21. [2] [3] C. A. Drogus, and S. Orvis, Introducing Comparative Politics: Concepts and Cases in  Context, CQ Press, (Washington, DC, 2012) [4] C. A. Drogus, and S. Orvis, Introducing Comparative Politics: Concepts and Cases in  Context, CQ Press, (Washington, DC, 2012) , 373. [5] 583 [6] 543-545 [7] F. H. O’Neil, Essentials of Comparative Politics, W. W. Norton and Company, (New York, 2010), 2. [8]F. H. O’Neil, Essentials of Comparative Politics, W. W. Norton and Company, (New York, 2010), 3. [9] F. H. O’Neil, Essentials of Comparative Politics, W. W. Norton and Company, (New York, 2010), 7-8. [10] F. H. O’Neil, Essentials of Comparative Politics, W. W. Norton and Company, (New York, 2010), 8. [11] F. H. O’Neil, Essentials of Comparative Politics, W. W. Norton and Company, (New York, 2010), 9. [12] Sonali Singh and Christopher Way, The Correlates of Nuclear Proliferation: A Quantitative Test, Dec, 2004, Accessed, May 1, 2014,

Dental X-ray Tech

Everything was set; I placed the film In the mannequins' mouth, positioned the mannequins head, positioned the x-ray beam, and then pushed the button. All of a sudden, all the electricity went out! Oh my Lord, what did I do! I broke the machine, I thought to myself. Just then another student shouted â€Å"Look, the lights in the city are all going out†. We were having a major blackout in New York City. What a lucky break for me, I thought. So with a sigh of relief, we all quickly gathered our belongings to leave the bulging for security purposes, and into the night we went.My classmate and I owed to stay together, until we both reached home Dental X-Ray Techniques safely, and being two female teenagers at 17 years old, we were both as frightened as little rabbits. That night was one of the longest and scariest nights of our lives; we only had $3. 00 dollars between the two of us and at that time a 35 cent token each. With all the chaos of looting; price hiking of the cabs; and flashers coming out of Bryant Park, we were truly thankful and grateful for making it home safely.School was delayed for about a week, but I did manage to complete and pass my test and resume my studies. Graduation Day came in October of 1977. We were all dressed In starched white uniforms, white stockings, white shoes, and white nursing caps looking very professional. My family and I were very proud when I receive my certificate of Proficiency (exhale: 1). About one week after graduation, I went on a job interview and landed my first dental Job at 1 Hanson Place, Brooklyn New York in the dental field of Orthodontics. Dry.Robert Fisher was a very well known Orthodontist in New York, and he loved teaching all the ladies in the office all they should know about the field. Although we all rotated between his two offices, one In Brooklyn, and another In Manhattan and had other duties as assigned, In his particular offices, one of my mall responsibly was to take and develop all types of x-rays on each patient. This was due to the excellent grades I received in school that Dry. Fisher viewed. The x-rays consisting of: 1. A full mouth of Periodical x-rays 2. A Pandora x-ray 4. A Wrist-plate x-ray 5.An Causal x-ray 6. Four Bite-wing x-rays A full-mouth series of Periodical's consist of: Eighteen small film x-rays, strategically place in the mouth one at a time, to capture al thirty-two teeth in a persons' mouth. This x-ray is primarily used to diagnose abnormalities involving the roots and bone. If there are missing teeth you still have to capture the anatomy of the spacing. All cavities on the crowns of the teeth or roots of the teeth will show up for the doctor to view. This is what is known as an intra-oral dental x-ray, because the film is placed inside the mouth.A Pandora x-ray: A Pandora x-ray is an x-ray that captures a persons' complete upper and lower teeth; jaw-line; eye-socket's; and face-plate of the person. The film is place in a large assets off large x -ray machine. The patient is then positioned to bite on a grooved bite stick that is attached to the machine. Temple stabilizers are closed at the temples of Dental X-Ray Techniques the head and the chin is lifted slightly upward and resting on a chin-rest. This cassette is made to revolve around the patient's head, while the patient is in a non- moving standing position.This is what is known as an extra-oral dental x-ray, because the film is positioned outside of the mouth. Spectrograph x-ray: A Spectrograph is an x-ray that captures a patients' entire skull. This is also an extra- oral x-ray, and it shows the profile of the patient and how far the teeth and Jaw-line is protruding. It helps the doctor assess which way to align the patients' teeth and Jaw. Hand-wrist-plate x-ray: This is an x-ray that is taken on children only to allow the doctor to see the growth pattern in a child.It helps the doctor to see if the children's teeth are growing normally or not, and how fast or slow a child is growing. In relations to their teeth, it allows the doctor to know ahead of time what treatment of movement to the teeth loud be needed to help the child. This x-ray also determines the real age of the child. An Clausal x-ray: An Clausal x-ray is a large x-ray that shows how wide or how narrow the palate of a person's mouth is, and the full arch of the upper (maxillary) and lower (mandible) teeth.Bite-wing x-rays: Bite-wing x-rays are four small x-rays, taken in the posterior (back teeth) part of the mouth, that show the crown of the teeth; the gum-line; and cavities on the crowns and in between the teeth. These x-rays also help to show the early stages of periodontal disease. When I first entered the Veteran's Administration in 1988, infection control for dental radiology was one of the most important standard we had to know. Even though we did have an assigned X-ray Technician, we as Dental Assistants also had to know all about dental x-ray techniques, since there are s o many aspects to know about taking dental x-ray.But the important immediate basic (exhibit: 2) We were taught in the Veterans Administration that before bringing a patient into the x-ray room you have to be sure that the room is clean and disinfected on all surfaces that are touched by anyone. The Assistants should wash their hands before putting on gloves because gloves must be worn at all times. Then, surfaces such as; the control panels; biting apparatus; exposure switch; counters; the tube of the machine; and any handles that are touched should be covered with a special plastic barrier tape that is easily peeled off once you are finished.But this tape should be placed in view of the patient, so they can see and know that the coverings are fresh and clean. After, the Assistant should wash their hands again, because some gloves contain powder inside them. Before any dental x-rays are taken ask the patient to please remove all earrings; tongue piercing; face piercing; hair pins; a nd sometimes even necklaces, so that these things do not interfere with the reading of the x-rays. The Assistant can start by letting the patient know that it's okay if they gag and that they will take things very slow to make them comfortable.So if the Assistant does encounter a gagger there are different methods that can be used to tried and alleviate the gagging such as: putting a little oral topical anesthesia on the tongue and palate; sometimes telling he patient to lift one leg slightly off the floor and holding it there, (with this method it gets the patient to concentrate on the lifting instead of what's being done in the mouth), and even asking the patient to take a deep breath and holding it sometimes help.Using Petitioned film is also tried at times since this film is very small and generally used on children. Since periodical x-rays are the ones taken most often, it is better to take this particular x-ray by using a film holder for paralleling called the â€Å"Rain ICPà ¢â‚¬ , this holder takes the guesswork out of site angling. Then by centering the x-ray beam over the film, you will prevent cutting off any vital anatomy, which is called, â€Å"cone cutting†. Always develop a sequence when exposing your film so that no area is missed or overlooked.Starting with the anterior (front) teeth first is the easiest area for the patient to tolerate, then work your way to the back. This helps the patient to gag less, and allows the Assistant to achieve getting as many of the eighteen x-rays as possible. There will be times when a patient Just does not want to have an x-ray because they fear the radiation (exhibit: 3). Try to have patience and explain to the patient that the doses of radiation are very small compared to the benefits of diagnosing any problem.But when you can take the x-rays the Assistant should factor in all the safety measures for themselves, and the patient. By using a Thyroid Collar on the patient, thyroid exposure is reduced by fifty percent while a lead apron reduces Next, only the Assistant and the patient are allowed in the x-ray room during exposure. Then, the Assistant must stand in a safe place, preferably at least six feet away behind a barrier and not in direct contact to the beam. If you cannot stand six feet away, then stand outside of the room.No Assistant should ever hold the films in the patient's mouth, like they use to do in the days of old, and never hold the beam or tube head to stabilize it during exposure. There are many organ in a persons' body that are radiotherapist and these organs are: the reproductive organs; the thyroid glands; a fetus; female breast; your skin; the lens of your eyes; and blood forming organs. Damage to these organs can result in a person getting cancer; inherited mutations; birth defects; cataracts; and leukemia. A way in which we were taught to reduce radiation exposure to patients is by using the â€Å"A.L. A. R. A. † concept, which stands for â€Å"As Low As Reasonably Achievable†. This means that every reasonable step to reduce radiation exposure too person will be used. The Assistant should always use protective wear when handling radiography and touching patients such as: gloves; surgical masks; protective eye wear; and a protective gown in case the Assistant do encounter a gagger. If the patient is still a little frightened, let them know that the Doctor cannot give a lull exam without the x-rays, and if that doesn't work, let the Doctor speak to the patient.Never x-ray any woman if you see or suspect her being pregnant. When cleaning up the x-ray room after use, the Assistant must remember to remove all the plastic barrier tape; dispose of the gloves and dispose any other supplies used, in the proper waste containers. The room must be cleaned and disinfected, even on surfaces that were not covered; turn off the x-ray machine and place the tube in a resting position, which is usually against the wall. Hang the lead apro n up, and aka sure it is not folded, because folding the apron damages the lead inside.Never re-drape the room with the plastic for the next patient, because the next Assistant won't know whether it is clean or not, and neither will the patient. Keep an accurate check on all your x-ray developing solutions and always follow the manufacturer's instructions, whether you have a manual developer or an automatic developer. As a Dental Assistant, I have taken x-rays on patients for approximately thirty years. I have taught many of my co-workers in the Veterans Administration how to SE the newest digital x-ray machines in the clinic, and I am knowledgeable in processing x-rays as well as mounting them (exhibit: 4).My knowledge of policies and procedures come from my ability to research and review available records and locate required documents through our â€Å"Decentralized Hospital Computer Programming† system. In dental the basic standards of policies and procedures are: wearing lead aprons; technicians wearing their radiation badges; exercising quality control; monitoring exposure levels (ALARM); knowing and extending patient privacy information; Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act; and excellent customer service.

How Does the Bfg Function?

The BFG is a book about a little girl from an orphanage named Sophie who is lying awake in bed one night and sees a giant walking the streets. She tries to hide once she has seen him but it is too late. He takes her out of her room and runs back to his cave. At first she is worried that he is going to eat her but he is not that type of giant. He is known as the Big Friendly Giant and eats disgusting vegetables that taste like rotting frogs. His main idea of fun is catching dreams and blowing the happy ones into children’s bedrooms at night.The other nine giants however are man eating giants and they go to different countries every night to eat people. They take them from their homes while they are sleeping and eat them. Sophie thinks these other giants need to be stopped but they are a lot bigger and meaner than the BFG. In the end she does come up with a plan to mix up a dream to tell the queen of England what is going on with these giants. Sophie and the BFG create a dream t hat tells the queen all about the bad giants and what they do at night and about her and the good giant.When the queen awakes Sophie is on her windowsill to confirm the dream and to help create a plan of action. After a very interesting breakfast during which the BFG is sitting on a piano piled with other things for his chair and a ping pong table on top of four grandfather clocks for his table then the queen invites the heads of the military in to create a plan. They decide to catch the giants while they are sleeping and carry them off with helicopters.In the end the bad giants are forced to stay in a huge pit and they are fed the disgusting vegetables that the BFG was forced to eat before. The BFG gets a nice huge house next to the castle and Sophie gets a little cottage next to him and the BFG writes a book about his experiences, which as we find out in the end is the BFG, the book we just read. Personal Notes: This is a really fun and quick book. Easy to read and grabs the reade r’s attention. I really liked the parts where Dahl makes up new words for things.I think it creates a sense of wonder in the children. I remember when I used to read his books and they included words that weren’t really words that this was fun. I never mistook them for real words or used them in school, that might make me look funny, but I loved the way he used them just the same. I think that is very applicable in a book about things that don’t really exist, man eating giants, it helps the reader appreciate that these things aren’t real and adds imagination to it.