Risk Management And Derivatives Finance Essay - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 5 Words: 1480 Downloads: 6 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Finance Essay Type Narrative essay Did you like this example? Dynamic asset allocation strategies are used by investors to hedge and insure their portfolio and thus, reduce their risk exposure. Each change in the value of assets in the portfolio will require from the investors to rebalance the asset allocation in order to keep the risk exposure constant. (Perold and Sharpe, 1995) In the European market, buying a put that we will exercise in order to make up for any decrease in the portfolio value is the most common method to hedge a portfolio. However, as European options are not available on listed exchanges in the U.S, investors have to find another way to insure their investments. A popular way to do so is to follow a dynamic asset allocation strategy. The most common one are: Buy-and-Hold strategies, Constant-Mix strategies, Constant-proportion portfolio insurance and Option-based portfolio insurance. Though, other authors identify different strategies that are not considered as being dynamic strategies. For exampl e: the Momentum strategies (Miccolis Goodman, 2012) or Stop-loss order strategies (Rubinstein, 1985). In an attempt to have a better understanding of these strategies and to be able to discuss them, the first part of this essay will be focused on the presentation of these strategies, showing their differences and similarities, while the second part will discuss the different factors that have to be taking into account when an investor choices a strategy. Different strategies to insure a portfolio When investing in US listed exchanges, investors cannot use protective put to insure their portfolio and then, they have to employ others techniques that are expected to give the same level of insurance than the traditional method. In their paper, Perold and Sharpe (1995) present and explain the main dynamic strategies that can be use on the US market. Buy-and-Hold strategy is a Do Nothing strategy because after the purchase of an initial mix of bonds and shares, this mix is he ld and does not required any rebalancing, even in the case of a change in the relative values of assets. Conversely, Constant-mix strategies are do something strategies because when the relative values change, the investor has to rebalance the portfolio in order to keep the desired mix constant. This strategy buy stocks as they fall and sell stocks as they rise. On the other hand, while constant mix strategies buy stocks as they fall, Constant-proportion portfolio insurance (CPPI) sells stocks as they fall and buys stocks as they rise. The main characteristic of this strategy is to keep the exposure to equities a constant multiple of the cushion (i.e. Asset- Floor). By maintaining this risk exposure constant, CPPI has a very limited downside risk (Cont Rama, 2009). Like CPPI strategy, Option-based portfolio insurance (OBPI) strategies sell stock as they fall and buy stocks as they rise. OBPI is also characterized by the realization of the same payoff at horizon as a portfo lio composed of bills and call options would do. These dynamic strategies are opposed to other strategies that can insure portfolio too. Miccolis Goodman (2012) present an example of Dynamic Asset Allocation: Momentum-based moving average (MA) strategies could aid to reduce the risk exposure of a portfolio and thus to achieve the goals of rebalancing. They identify different approaches insight these strategies. The first one involves the comparison of the MA value with the index; when the index is above the MA, the investor stays invested in the index; if the index is below the MA, he gets out. The second one is the Moving-Average-Crossover (MAC) strategy in which the investor uses two MAs (Short-term and Long-term) and when the short-term MA is greater than the long-term MA, he invests in assets. Unlike the first two approaches, the last one looks at the trend in the MA. When it is increasing, he has to invest in the asset, otherwise, he does not. In his paper, Rubinstein (1985) opposes dynamic strategies to Stop-loss orders that are one of the simplest techniques to insured a portfolio. The probability of experiencing any losses is zero and the investor does not need to look after the stocks performance every day. However, the market price can be different from the stop price as the value of the portfolio is not completely determined by the level of the SP 50 and then the insurance is not complete. Furthermore, in order to have a perfect portfolio insurance, Stop-loss order need to have a path-dependence equal to zero. Which one is the best? While comparing these different strategies, it appears that the choice of a specific strategy will depend of the degree of fit between a strategys exposure diagram and the investors risk tolerance. (Perold Sharpe, 1995) The type of market can also influence the choice of a strategy and the above strategies do not behave the same way in a volatile and not-so-volatile market. Volatile market and thus re versals will favor strategy that buys stocks as they fall and sells them as they rise (i.e. Constant-mix strategies) because the marginal decision will be good one as investors trade in a way that take advantage of the reversals. Conversely, the CPPI will perform well in a bull market because as its buying stocks as they rise, each marginal purchase will pay off substantially. A Buy-and-Hold strategy will perform well in a flat market while both CPPI and OBPI will poorly perform. Finally, investors are likely to prefer Constant-mix strategies to Buy-and-Hold strategies when the market ends up near its starting point and vice-versa (Perold Sharpe, 1995). When comparing CPPI with the OBPI, Bertrand Prigent (2002) found that there was no dominance between these two strategies when taking the mean-variance approach. They also found that CPPI are simple and flexible strategies to insure a portfolio because all the features can be chosen according to the own investors objective (i.e. Initial cushion, floor and multiple) and that OBPI can be considered as a generalized CPPI strategy. Miccolis Goodman (2012) compare the performance of the Momentum-based moving average (MA) strategies to the Buy-and-Hold one. They found that each of these strategies has different strengths and weaknesses, but no one was perfect. In order to call off these weaknesses, they prove that an investor may possibly use several momentum strategies that could be apply under specific market condition in which they perform well. A test has been realized and the results showed that this use of several momentum strategies at a different time period following the market condition perform similarly to a Buy-and-Hold strategy. However, Miccolis Goodman (2012) also remind that MA does not replace asset allocation and rebalancing but could be useful tool to provide in and out signals in order to improve the performance of a dynamic strategy. The need for resetting the characteristics of a st rategy could also influence the choice of the investor. For example, while for the most of the dynamic strategies the resetting is not mandatory and depends on the investors aim, the OBPI has to reset these parameters at horizon. These strategies can be implemented in perpetuity but if the investors want to reset the parameters it can modify their basic characteristics and a CPPI strategy can easily become a constant-mix strategy by keeping a constant fraction of assets into the CPPI formula. Finally, investors with long time horizons usually prefer strategies that can be implemented in perpetuity (i.e. CPPI, buy-and-hold and constant-mix approaches) (Perold and Sharpe, 1995). Rubinstein (1985) states that when investors are looking to replicate a protective put, they are likely to favor other dynamic strategies than the Stop-loss order because they insure almost perfectly the portfolio while the Stop-loss order strategies suffer from extreme path-dependence. Finally, the choi ce of a strategy will depend of the investors preferences and of the market conditions. Conclusion When investors want to insure their portfolio in order to reduce their risk exposure, different options can be chosen. Stop-loss orders are one of the simplest techniques to insured a portfolio but the investors could also choice to apply one of the traditional dynamic asset allocation strategy: Buy-and-Hold strategies, Constant-Mix strategies, Constant-proportion portfolio insurance and Option-based portfolio insurance. It is not possible to say that one strategy is best for an investor and his choice will depend of his risk profile and of the market characteristics. However, Perold and Sharpe (1995) argue that the only strategy that all investors can apply is the Buy-and-Hold strategy because of its simplicity. An investor that has zero tolerance for risk is likely to apply a Buy-and-Hold strategy or a CPPI strategy while the tolerance for risk with an OBPI strategy will var y according to the investors wealth. Moreover, these strategies do not perform the same way under different market conditions and an investor has to take into account these differences if he wants to have an efficient strategy. The choice of a strategy will then depend of how much risk and/or reward an investor is willing to bear. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Risk Management And Derivatives Finance Essay" essay for you Create order

The Character Of Willy Loma - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 2 Words: 594 Downloads: 6 Date added: 2019/06/12 Category Literature Essay Level High school Tags: Death Of A Salesman Essay Did you like this example? The character Willy Loman is a shipping clerk who sells his companys products in different cities in the United States. However, author Arthur Miller did not disclose the specific products that Willie sold, perhaps because his role represented everyone in this situation to ensure that more viewers contacted and recognized the role. Willie is involved in a customer-based sales approach. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Character Of Willy Loma" essay for you Create order He described this type of sales throughout the script, and he described the power of sales as pretending to sell until you achieved the desired results, looking good, fascinating people and jokes so people would like you. On many occasions, Willy described his experience in sales travel. For example, he told his wife that the trip was bad because people thought he was not flattering. Whats more, when he finally faced the truth of his failure, it ended. He found that people buy people. If one person is not true, people will not buy you. This makes him realize that his work skills are poor and he lacks comprehensive success. Author Arthur performed in New York in the 1940s, and Willy Lomans family lived in Brooklyn. New York at the time was before industrialization and adopted changes such as apartment construction. The play also describes different flashbacks, such as Willies encounter with Biff in Boston, his timeline is unknown. The culture in the background of the drama of the 1940s shows the consistency of American societys group norms for realizing the dream of American life that is richer, better, and richer. In the process of realizing this vision, most people give up social values such as honesty, integrity, and loyalty, but blindly believe in society driven by materialistic nature. Willies approach to customers includes fostering materialism by meeting customers, applying personal charisma, understanding customers, engaging their language, interests, and sales needs. Sales strategies are not largely dependent on education, but on customers. In order to succeed, salesmen like Willy are selling all over the country, can afford all the household appliances they need, and become rich. In addition, the background of the play is a business climate characterized by a golden age of economic growth after World War II. As war bonds mature, productivity increases, capital expands, and well-educated working-class people make the business environment favorable. Therefore, more citizens have the right to bear the various necessities in life, which makes sales an ideal cause In my opinion, Willie decided to work in sales because he thought it was easy to do, and it allowed him to realize the American dream of wealth and success. In addition to his own American dream, he had more of his own children. Willy believes that personality, not hard work and innovation, is the key to success. Time and again, he wants to make sure his boys are well-liked and popular. For example, when his son Biff confesses to making fun of his math teacherrs lisp, Willy is more concerned with how Biffrs classmates react: BIFF: I Crossed my eyes and talked with a lithp. WILLY: (Laughing.) You did? The kids like it? BIFF: They nearly died laughing! Throughout the script, Willie portrays his idea of success as believing that education, hard work, and innovation are not as important as being charismatic, looking good, and being flattering. Willie sees the world as popular and popular with peoples preferences. This concept runs through his entire career, and he believes that it will m ake him loved, trustworthy, and attract customers. At the same time, his beliefs, wealth and wealth are important goals in life, making sales an ideal career pursuit.

The Red Wheelbarrow Analysis Free Essays

The Red Wheelbarrow by William Carlos Williams so much depends upon a red wheel barrow glazed with rain water beside the white chickens. The Red Wheelbarrow Summary Our speaker reflects on how important a certain red wheelbarrow is. This wheelbarrow is wet from a recent rain, and there happen to be white chickens hanging out with the wheelbarrow. We will write a custom essay sample on The Red Wheelbarrow Analysis or any similar topic only for you Order Now The End. The Red Wheelbarrow Summary Line 1 so much depends * Our speaker doesn’t say â€Å"much depends† or â€Å"things depend† or â€Å"I depend,† he says â€Å"so much depends. † That â€Å"so† makes us feel the gravity of the situation. It’s as though our speaker really wants and needs to drive the point home. The verb â€Å"depends† is a strong one too, and one that suggest a that whatever is being depended upon is a pretty big deal. Line 2 upon * â€Å"Upon† – what a pretty preposition. And an important one too. So important, in fact, that it gets its very own line. * Visually (on the page) the first line of the poem (which is way longer than this line) actually looks like it’s resting upon the â€Å"upon† of line two. The first line  depends  upon this second line. Hehe. Line 3 a red wheel * A brand new couplet. We’re dying to know what â€Å"so much† depends upon – d rum roll, please. So much depends upon â€Å"a red wheel. † * A red wheel? We haven’t seen too many red wheels in our days. * The use of the word â€Å"red† really gets our imaginations going, for some reason. We hear the word â€Å"red† all the time, but for some reason, this color really sticks out in this poem. Why do you think that is? Line 4 barrow * Oh! It’s a red â€Å"wheelbarrow,† not a red wheel. Our speaker just chose to split the word â€Å"wheel† and â€Å"barrow† up and didn’t put a dash between them. * By splitting up the two pieces of this word, our speaker makes us think about the fact that a wheelbarrow is composed of two distinct parts: the wheel and the barrow (the part you load stuff into). In some ways, we feel like this couplet looks like a wheelbarrow. * OK, now that we’ve figured out what â€Å"so much† depends upon, we’re dying to know what kinds of things depend upon a red wheelbarrow. Um, dirt could depend upon a wheelbarrow. Six-year-olds who like to be pushed around in wheelbarrows could depend upon a wheelbarrow. A person who likes to do heavy gardening could depend upon a wheelbarrow. * What else could depend upon a wheelbarrow? It might help to do some research on wheelbarrows. Apparently, they’ve been around for almost 2,500 years and were invented in Ancient Greece. Why is it important that this particular wheelbarrow is â€Å"red†? The redness factor seems to play a huge part in just how cool this wheelbarrow is. Line 5 glazed with rain * A new couplet! * The word â€Å"glazed† makes us think of a shiny, glossy, glassy surface. Our wheelbarrow is sparkly from the rain. * Who left this VIP wheelbarrow out in the ra in? Talk about neglect. If we owned a red wheelbarrow upon which much depended, we would take better care of it. * But the idea that it is â€Å"glazed with rain† makes us think that it looks pretty snappy. Line 6 water Again, we have a one-word line, making it seem like the first line of this couplet (line 5)  depends  upon this section line. * Again, our speaker decides to split up the word â€Å"rainwater† into its equal parts: â€Å"rain† and â€Å"water. † Why would he do this? Perhaps to remind us that rain is composed of water? Line 7 beside the white * A new couplet! Here, we’re introduced to yet another snappy preposition: â€Å"beside. † * We’re given some more information about where our red wheelbarrow is and about the things around it. Apparently, our red wheelbarrow is standing beside something white. Talk about one colorful poem. We see the color â€Å"white† all the time in our daily lives, but there’ s something special about this â€Å"white,† just as there is something special about the wheelbarrow’s â€Å"red. † These colors are sticking out in our minds. Line 8 chickens * The wheelbarrow is not alone! Thank heavens. There are chickens to hang out with. * We think it is interesting that the speaker refers to these chickens as â€Å"the white chickens† and not as â€Å"some white chickens† or â€Å"the chickens. † He wants to describe them very carefully and very precisely. These are some special chickens. Again, the second line of this couplet looks (visually) as though it were holding up or supporting the first line, emphasizing the idea that so much depends upon the wheelbarrow. * Are these chickens part of the â€Å"so much† that depends upon the red wheelbarrow? What kind of relationship do you think these chickens have with said wheelbarrow? In a Station of the Metro|   | by  Ezra Pound| | The apparition of these faces in the crowd;Petals on a wet, black bough. | | | | | In a Station of the Metro Summary A man sees a bunch of faces in the subway and thinks they look like flowers on a tree branch. In a Station of the Metro† Summary Line 1 The apparition of these faces in the crowd; * The poet is watching faces appear in a crowded metro (subway) station. * You wouldn’t know it only from reading the poem, but we’re in Paris, which means that everyone looks really nice. * The poet is trying to get us to see things from his perspective, and the word â€Å"apparition† suggests that the faces are becoming visible to him very suddenly and probably disappearing just as fast. They almost look like ghosts. If you’ve ever been in a crowded subway, then you’re probably familiar with this phenomenon. By calling them â€Å"these faces,† he puts us right there in the metro station, as if he were pointing his finger and saying, â€Å"Look! † * The station mus t be pretty full, because there is a â€Å"crowd. † Line 2 Petals on a wet, black bough. * Although he doesn’t say so, the words â€Å"looks like† are implicit at the start of this line. The faces in the crowd â€Å"look like† flower petals on a â€Å"wet, black bough. † * A â€Å"bough† is a big tree branch, and the word, in case you’re wondering, is pronounced â€Å"bow,† as in â€Å"take a bow. † * When is a tree branch wet and black? Probably at night, after the rain. A Paris subway, on the other hand, is always wet and black. * Now, we’re going out on a limb here (pun! ), but he may be seeing the faces reflected in a puddle over black asphalt. Or it could just be a more general sense of wetness. At any rate, the faces in the subway are being compared to flowers on a tree branch. * Another fact to keep in mind is that Japan is famous for its beautiful flowering trees, and considering that this poem is written in Japanese  haiku  style . . . well, heck, he might just be thinking of a Japanese tree. Helen BY  H. D. All Greece hates the still eyes in the white face, the lustre as of olives where she stands, and the white hands. All Greece reviles the wan face when she smiles, hating it deeper still when it grows wan and white, remembering past enchantments and past ills. Greece sees unmoved, God’s daughter, born of love, the beauty of cool feet and slenderest knees, could love indeed the maid, only if she were laid, white ash amid funereal cypresses. Summary: The narrator praises  Helen  for her beauty, which he compares to a ship bringing a â€Å"weary, wayworn wanderer† to his home. Her classic beauty has reminded him of ancient times, and he watches her stand like a statue while holding a stone lamp. Analysis: In â€Å"To Helen,† first published in 1831 and revised in later years, Poe displays an early interest in the theme of female beauty to which his later works often return. He wrote this poem in honor of Jane Stith Stanard, the mother of his childhood friend Rob, although he later wrote a different, longer poem of the same name to Sarah Helen Whitman. Jane Stanard had recently died, and, through his writing, Poe sought to thank her for acting as a second mother to him. The Helen of the 1831 poem embodies a classic beauty and poise, and by using Jane Stanard as the inspiration, Poe celebrated the latter woman as one of his earliest loves. Although Poe never explained why he changed Jane Stanard’s name to Helen in the poem, one possible interpretation is that he intended to connect her to the famed Helen of Troy, who sparked the Trojan War of Homer’s  Iliad  because of her beauty. The remainder of the poem shows a definite classical influence, with Poe’s elevated diction and his direct references to â€Å"the glory that was Greece† and â€Å"the grandeur that was Rome. He also praises Helen’s beauty by describing her â€Å"hyacinth hair† and â€Å"classic face,† details that are associated with ancient standards of the female ideal. If Poe indeed intended for the name â€Å"Helen† to refer to Helen of Troy, then he has given his character high praise indeed. Along with the ambiguity of Hele n’s name, the identity of the narrator is also in question, as he does not have a name or much of a physical presence. He refers to himself as the alliterative â€Å"weary, wayworn wanderer† who has returned home, drawn to Helen’s alluring and comforting hearth. Poe may have intended the narrator to be a direct reflection of himself, who as a boy felt more welcome in Jane Stanard’s house than in other environments. At the same time, he may have sought to depict the narrator as an archetypal man, who like all other men found a nurturing source in a woman’s home. Otherwise, the narrator might be akin to a victorious Greek warrior who, like Homer’s Odysseus, has returned from some struggle overseas. The role of the female in â€Å"To Helen† is multifaceted. In one sense, Helen guards the home hearth in the traditional domestic role of caregiver while displaying a faithful attachment that recalls the idealized love of  Annabel Lee  in Poe’s eponymous 1849 poem. Simultaneously, Helen is the protagonist’s guide and inspiration who brings him back from the lonely seas, and her depiction as â€Å"statue-like† with an â€Å"agate lamp† characterizes her as steadfast and dependable. Finally, there are mentions of Naiads, or ancient Greek water nymphs, and Psyche, the mythological woman who represents the soul and who marries Eros, the god of love. These twin allusions emphasize the concordance between Helen’s outer and inner beauty. As is typical with many of Poe’s poems, the rhythm and rhyme scheme of â€Å"To Helen† is irregular but musical in sound. The poem consists of three stanzas of five lines each, where the end rhyme of the first stanza is ABABB, that of the second is ABABA, and that of the third is ABBAB. Poe uses soothing, positive words and rhythms to create a fitting tone and atmosphere for the poem. His concluding image is that of light, with a â€Å"brilliant window niche† and the agate lamp suggesting the glowing of the â€Å"Holy Land,† for which Helen is the beacon. How to cite The Red Wheelbarrow Analysis, Essay examples

Anime Evolution and Influence in America free essay sample

Chareunsack David Lon English 3 June 6th, 2012 Anime Evolving amp; its Influence in America As a child or young adult growing up in the 1990’s you remember watching shows like Dragon Ball Z, Sailor Moon, or Inuyasha. Then you watch these shows later on in your life you notice that the movement of their mouths doesn’t fall into sync with the English language. If you ever noticed this then you later learn that it is because America adopted them from Japan, where it was first originated. Many cartoons or animations we see on television aren’t all made in America. It makes you wonder how did anime not only influence American culture, but how has it evolved since it was first introduced? What is Manga? What do newspapers, comic books, and graphic novels have in common? They all portray a type of entertainment that people from certain age groups look at. In Japan this type of entertainment is common for people of all ages. The comic strip provided Japanese story-lines with a structure that was readily accessible to the masses. These would eventually contribute to the development of a modern Japanese comic book or â€Å"manga† (). Manga is used in the English-speaking world as a generic term for all comic books and graphic novels that were originally published in Japan (). Many people in America tend to not read a comic or graphic novel once they hit a certain age, in fear of their peers deeming them â€Å"un-cool†. In Japan, comics are highly popular with males and females of all ages, no matter what his or her interests (). When people in the United States think of comics, they think of superheroes and comic strips in newspapers. They don’t think of comics as art or literature (). What is Anime? Have you ever watched Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs? If you have then you know that in 1937 () it became so successful that it influenced that art of Japanese animation, or anime. What is anime, you may ask. Anime is used as a term to refer to all animation forms all over the world (). Japanese anime and American cartoons are completely different from their art forms, to the genre of its story line, or plot, to their type of audience. The audiences for these two types of animations are extremely different. While cartoons are mostly generated toward children, anime has a larger range of their audience. An anime audience ranges from children, to young adults to even businessmen. Cartoons usually have a simple and defined plot and theyre usually about the good guys fighting the bad guys (). Most Anime series, on the other hand, are also about the same good vs. evil but the plots are rarely simple and rarely predictable (). In a handful of anime series there are incidences where the writer makes the line between good and evil so unclear; you’ll be left in wonder as to who is right or and who is wrong. Look at the Wave Country arc of  Naruto  which is now at  Naruto Shippuden. Zabuza, evil as he was, had evoked more sympathetic tears than any of the typical Disney antagonists (). History The History of Manga originates from scrolls dating back to the 12th century, however whether these scrolls are actually manga is still dispute. Anime began at the start of the 20th century, when Japanese filmmakers experimented with the animation techniques that were being explored in the west; the United States, France, Germany, and Russia. Osamu Tezuka Osamu Tezuka, born in 1928-1989, was often known as the â€Å"godfather† of anime and the â€Å"God of Manga†. Osama Tezuka made cartooning and animation into serious art forms in Japan, where he is often compared with  Walt Disney (). Although bullied as a child he had many hobbies, one of which he will be remembered for, for the rest of his life. While he used to read comics he often drew them as well. Even as he attended medical school, he continued his love for drawing manga. Tezuka was still a medical student when he began drawing a serial newspaper strip called  Machan no Nikkicho, Diary of Ma-chan (). From the age of 18, he worked at a furious pace and had dozens of different stories published in newspapers, magazines and books. His work gradually became successful enough to get him noticed by the big publishers in Tokyo and his career was soon off to a real start (). Originally an aspiring animator, Tezuka became a cartoonist after World War II. He was only 20 years old when his first significant work, the novel length, Shintakarajima or â€Å"New Treasure Island†, appered in 1947. In just a few years, he became Japan’s most popular manga artist, eventually earning the tittle â€Å"God of Manga† (). Anime Influencing America Many integrations goes through the process, having to work its way from the ground up and then become a phenomenon in pop culture and anime is one of the best example of this integration. Anime becoming a cultural boom in 1990’s didn’t just happen overnight. At first recognized by the most avid and ravenous of fans -those that had the proper resources- things like anime, Japanese pop and samurai culture were definite underground sensations (). Producing Anime Video game consoles picked up steam and began to infiltrate millions of American households. These consoles, all Japanese made until Microsoft entered the fray in 2001, carried numerous Japanese franchises and storytelling methods that would enthrall children and teenagers across America (). When cable television began airing anime in small chunks here and there, vast amounts of those children who had grown up on Japanese video games immediately attached themselves. By the end of the 1990s, anime was a fringe pop culture niche. Thanks in part to the growth of DVD formatting and internet downloads, it was a full-blown mega-industry only 3 or 4 years later. Today, major anime releases find their way into the American marketplace on one of a dozen different television channels, hundreds of weekly DVD releases and major theatrical releases. Miyazaki won an Oscar in 2002 and Jon Lasseter the head of Pixar and Americas current iteration of Walt Disney has cited the Japanese master as a major influence on Pixars work and named him one of the greatest animators in the world ().

English vs. Russian Adjectives

Introduction Paper structure The aim of this paper is to compare the adjectives in the two languages, namely English and Russian. The discussed issues include the formation of adjectives, their structure, morphology, meaning, role in sentences, and peculiarities of this part of speech in each language.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on English vs. Russian Adjectives specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This study will present the special features of Russian as of a Slavonic language. It will also compare the differences of adjectives use in English and Russian, and demonstrate them with different examples. In addition, the paper will show how the findings might be used in pedagogical practice in order to teach Russian. Russian as a Slavonic language Russian, as well as English, belongs to the Indo-European language family, which logically would have to point to a number of similar characteristics between the langu ages. However, in the more detailed specification, Russian belongs to a Slavonic group of languages, namely to its Eastern part. This group has a multitude of features which differ it from the other Indo-European languages. Besides using a different alphabet (Cyrillic), it also is a synthetic language, in contrast to English, which is analytical (Ivanov, 2007). This feature plays a key role in the grammatical structure of the language. The synthetic properties like the wide use of affixes, absence of a set word order pattern, dominance of active constructions over passive and use of impersonal constructions determine the way the words and sentences are being formed and used. This, in turn, means using an approach to morphology, syntax, and semantics, which is completely different from that used in English. Besides the developed morphological system, Slavonic languages have one more significant difference. It lies in the fact that the languages of this group use seven cases, unlike t he four used in English (Ivanov, 2007). They include nominative, prepositive, accusative, genitive, dative, instrumentive, and locative cases (Sussex, 2006). This peculiarity determines the complexity of the language structure, and explains major differences between the use of English and Russian parts of speech. All these attributes of Russian as of a Slavonic language should be taken into consideration while conducting a comparative study between the two languages.Advertising Looking for term paper on linguistics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Role of adjectives in Russian Due to the differences in language structures, the role of different parts of speech in Russian and English also differs. For instance, one should clearly understand, that while in analytical languages the predicative center (which usually consists of a noun and a verb) plays the key role, in synthetic languages such strict hierarchy is absent. This mean s that other parts of speech can be of no lesser significance. Adjectives in Russian have a number of features, which makes this part of speech one of the most important, the one capable of cooperating and agreeing with any other part of speech. In addition, Russian adjectives have a much more complex nature than the English ones, as it will be demonstrated later in this paper. Even though Sihombing (2008) argues that the morphological processes in English adjectives play an outstanding role in enriching the language, in fact there are only few affixes that can be used to change the form of an adjective. In contrast, the opportunities of Russian morphology suggest that the number of affixes to use is almost unlimited, which is combined with a complicated system of declension and gender agreement (Asarina, 2009). Therefore, correct use of an adjective in Russian demands a deep knowledge of the language. Comparison of Russian and English adjectives Morphological structure While compar ing the adjectives in Russian and English, the morphological aspect is the most controversial and voluminous. This is due to the fact, that, as it was already mentioned, Russian is a synthetic language, which points to the exceptional role of morphology for its parts of speech. Concerning adjectives, the first thing to mention should be the existence of short and long forms of adjectives (Matushansky, 2006). Besides some exceptions, all the adjectives in Russian can be used in the both forms, considering that short forms are treated as more formal. The forms are distinguished by certain endings added to the root, but their meaning remains unchanged in both cases (1): ОÐ ½Ã ° Ã'Æ'Ð ¼Ã ½Ã °. – She is smart. (short form)Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on English vs. Russian Adjectives specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More ОÐ ½Ã ° Ã'Æ'Ð ¼Ã ½Ã °Ã' . – She is smart. (long form) ОÐ ½ Ã' Æ'Ð ¼Ã'‘Ð ½. – He is smart. (short form) ОÐ ½ Ã'Æ'Ð ¼Ã ½Ã'‹Ð ¹. – He is smart. (long form) ОÐ ½Ã ¾ Ã'Æ'Ð ¼Ã ½Ã ¾. – It is smart. (short form) ОÐ ½Ã ¾ Ã'Æ'Ð ¼Ã ½Ã ¾Ã µ. – It is smart. (long form) ОÐ ½Ã ° Ð ±Ã ¾Ã »Ã'Å'Ð ½Ã °. – She is sick. (short form) ОÐ ½Ã ° Ð ±Ã ¾Ã »Ã'Å'Ð ½Ã °Ã' . – She is sick. (long form)Advertising Looking for term paper on linguistics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More ОÐ ½ Ð ±Ã ¾Ã »Ã µÃ ½. – He is sick. (short form) ОÐ ½ Ð ±Ã ¾Ã »Ã'Å'Ð ½Ã ¾Ã ¹. – He is sick. (long form) ОÐ ½Ã ¾ Ð ±Ã ¾Ã »Ã'Å'Ð ½Ã ¾. – It is sick. (short form) ОÐ ½Ã ¾ Ð ±Ã ¾Ã »Ã'Å'Ð ½Ã ¾Ã µ. – It is sick. (long form) This property can be to some extent compared to that of English short and long forms, such as (2): Medic-medical; Hypothetic-hypothetical; Idiomatic-idiomatical, but this only concerns the ic/ical endings. Despite the absence of difference in meaning of the long and short forms of adjectives, there is a difference in therir use. For instance, the short forms can only serve as a predicative adjective, while the long forms can also be used attributively (Levine, 2009). As it can be seen from the given examples, the masculine gender demands not only adding a certain ending for a short form, but breaking the previous morpheme with an inserted vowel. Therefore, in case one is not sure about how to create a correct short form for masculine adjectives, he or she should better use the long ones. What is more, attention should be paid to the movable word stress, which is sometimes placed on the initial syllable in masculine and neuter gender. The tendencies of stress change can only be observed in the Russian speaking environment. It is worth noting that the short forms of adjectives in Russian are unlikely to appear in imperative sentences (3): БÃ'Æ'Ð ´Ã'Å' Ã' Ã ¸Ã »Ã'Å'Ð ½Ã'‹Ð ¼, but not: БÃ'Æ'Ð ´Ã'Å' Ã' Ã ¸Ã »Ã µÃ ½ (Be strong); БÃ'Æ'Ð ´Ã'Å' Ð ºÃ'€Ð °Ã' Ã ¸Ã ²Ã'‹Ð ¼, but not: БÃ'Æ'Ð ´Ã'Å' Ð ºÃ'€Ð °Ã' Ã ¸Ã ² (Be beautiful). What is more, only long forms of adjectives in Russian can receive case (Matushansky, 2006), which makes this form dominant for most cases of use in a certain context. Degrees of comparison Just like in English, qualitative adjectives in Russian have comparative and superlative forms. Their formation pattern for regula r adjectives is similar to the one used in English, as far as in Russian there also are suffixes that can be add to denote the comparative and superlative forms, as well as words equal to â€Å"more† and â€Å"the most†, which can be placed before the adjective(4): Nominative form Comparative form Superlative form rich richer richest Ð ±Ã ¾Ã ³Ã °Ã'‚Ã'‹Ð ¹ Ð ±Ã ¾Ã ³Ã °Ã'‡Ð µ/ Ð ±Ã ¾Ã »Ã µÃ µÃ ±Ã ¾Ã ³Ã °Ã'‚Ã'‹Ð ¹ Ð ±Ã ¾Ã ³Ã °Ã'‚Ð µÃ ¹Ã'ˆÐ ¸Ã ¹/ Ã' Ã °Ã ¼Ã'‹Ð ¹Ã ±Ã ¾Ã ³Ã °Ã'‚Ã'‹Ð ¹ complicated morecomplicated the mostcomplicated Ã' Ã »Ã ¾Ã ¶Ã ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ Ã' Ã »Ã ¾Ã ¶Ã ½Ã µÃ µ/ Ð ±Ã ¾Ã »Ã µÃ µÃ' Ã »Ã ¾Ã ¶Ã ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ Ã' Ã »Ã ¾Ã ¶Ã ½Ã µÃ ¹Ã'ˆÐ ¸Ã ¹/ Ã' Ã °Ã ¼Ã'‹Ð ¹Ã' Ã »Ã ¾Ã ¶Ã ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ Thus, the English suffixes –er and –est correspond to such Russian suffixes, as –Ã'‡Ð µ, -Ã'‰Ð µ, -Ð ¶Ã µ, -Ã'ˆÐ µ, Ð µe, and some others, while t he words more and most in comparative structures correspond to Ð ±Ã ¾Ã »Ã µÃ µ and Ã' Ã °Ã ¼Ã'‹Ð ¹. However, in practical use a significant difference between the two languages is that in Russian most of the adjectives can have two variants in the comparative and superlative forms. Despite the fact that it is also possible for English, it is more typical for this language to apply only one of the form of comparative or superlative degree to a certain adjective. In addition, it is impossible to use the suffixes for creating comparative and superlative forms of long words such as important, while in Russian the number of syllables does not play any role in the formation of degrees of comparison. This once more points to the absence of strict limitations for morphological forms in synthetic languages. Interestingly, while the comparative form created by the word Ð ±Ã ¾Ã »Ã µÃ µ preserves its property of gender, the neighboring form created with the help of a correspondi ng suffix does will be common for all the three genders (5): ОÐ ½ Ð ±Ã ¾Ã »Ã µÃ µ Ã'Æ'Ð ¼Ã ½Ã'‹Ð ¹. (He is smarter) ОÐ ½Ã ° Ð ±Ã ¾Ã »Ã µÃ µ Ã'Æ'Ð ¼Ã ½Ã °Ã' . (She is smarter) ОÐ ½Ã ¾ Ð ±Ã ¾Ã »Ã µÃ µ Ã'Æ'Ð ¼Ã ½Ã ¾Ã µ. (It is smarter); But: ОÐ ½ Ã'Æ'Ð ¼Ã ½Ã µÃ µ. (He is smarter) ОÐ ½Ã ° Ã'Æ'Ð ¼Ã ½Ã µÃ µ. (She is smarter) ОÐ ½Ã ¾ Ã'Æ'Ð ¼Ã ½Ã µÃ µ. (It is smarter) Intensifying morphemes Analyzing the morphological peculiarities of English and Russian, it is impossible to miss such aspect as formation of affectionate diminutive forms of adjectives. This ability, in fact, is most developed in East Slavonic languages, and presents an exclusively wide range of morphemes that can be used with this purpose (Sussex, 2006). In English the use of diminution is not very spread, which is due to the analytical structure of this language. In fact, the only possible way to make and adjective sound â€Å"small† or â€Å"cuteâ €  is adding the suffix –y, for example as in good-goody. In addition, this suffix does not always denote diminution and can be used with different purposes. In comparison with English, Russian morphology offers a range of suffixes, which can be add to adjectives in order to achieve a certain stylistic effect. The most spread one is the suffix Ð ½Ã'Å'Ð º, which is used to denote the small size of a subject or show affectionate attitude to it (6): Ð ¥Ã ¾Ã'€Ð ¾Ã'ˆÐ ¸Ã ¹ (good) – Ã'…Ð ¾Ã'€Ð ¾Ã'ˆÐ µÃ ½Ã'Å'Ð ºÃ ¸Ã ¹ (good and small) Ðâ€"Ð µÃ »Ã'‘Ð ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ (green) – Ð ·Ã µÃ »Ã'‘Ð ½Ã µÃ ½Ã'Å'Ð ºÃ ¸Ã ¹ (green in a pleasant way) Ð ¢Ã ¾Ã ½Ã ºÃ ¸Ã ¹ (thin) – Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã ½Ã µÃ ½Ã'Å'Ð ºÃ ¸Ã ¹ (exquisitely thin) Ð ¡Ã'‚Ð °Ã'€Ã'‹Ð ¹ (old) – Ã' Ã'‚Ð °Ã'€Ð µÃ ½Ã'Å'Ð ºÃ ¸Ã ¹ (old and kind) Ð ¥Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ (cold) – Ã'…Ð ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã ½Ã µÃ ½Ã'Å'Ð ºÃ ¸Ã ¹ (ple asantly cold) In addition to the mentioned suffix Ð ½Ã'Å'Ð º, two more affixes can be added in the former position in order to express tender emotions. Namely, these suffixes include Ã'‘Ã'… and Ð ¾ (7): ÐÅ"Ð °Ã »Ã'‹Ð ¹ (small) – ÐÅ"Ð °Ã »Ã'‘Ã'…Ð ¾Ã ½Ã'Å'Ð ºÃ ¸Ã ¹ Ðâ€"Ð ¸Ã ²Ã ¾Ã ¹ (alive) – Ðâ€"Ð ¸Ã ²Ã'‘Ã'…Ð ¾Ã ½Ã'Å'Ð ºÃ ¸Ã ¹ Ð ¡Ã'‚Ð °Ã'€Ã'‹Ð ¹ (old) – Ð ¡Ã'‚Ð °Ã'€Ã'‘Ã'…Ð ¾Ã ½Ã'Å'Ð ºÃ ¸Ã ¹ What is more, it is typical for Russian language to use one and the same adjective twice at one time. In this case, it will constitute one word, which is usually written with a hyphen. This method is used in order to intensify the meaning of an adjective. Interestingly, both regular and diminutive forms of adjectives can be used with this purpose; in case the two forms are combined, the diminutive usually follows the regular form. Furthermore, the helping prefix Ð ¿Ã'€Ð µ can be used for the adjective used fo r the second time. The meaning of this morpheme also can be interpreted as â€Å"very†, or â€Å"much†, which explains the use of this prefix as a meaning intensifier. In the example below, all the possible variations of this tool will be demonstrated, bearing that each of the words will have the meaning of â€Å"very old†(8): Ð ¡Ã'‚Ð °Ã'€Ã'‹Ð ¹-Ã' Ã'‚Ð °Ã'€Ã'‹Ð ¹ Ð ¡Ã'‚Ð °Ã'€Ð µÃ ½Ã'Å'Ð ºÃ ¸Ã ¹-Ã' Ã'‚Ð °Ã'€Ð µÃ ½Ã'Å'Ð ºÃ ¸Ã ¹ Ð ¡Ã'‚Ð °Ã'€Ã'‹Ð ¹-Ã' Ã'‚Ð °Ã'€Ð µÃ ½Ã'Å'Ð ºÃ ¸Ã ¹ Ð ¡Ã'‚Ð °Ã'€Ã'‹Ð ¹-Ã' Ã'‚Ð °Ã'€Ã'‘Ã'…Ð ¾Ã ½Ã'Å'Ð ºÃ ¸Ã ¹ Ð ¡Ã'‚Ð °Ã'€Ã'‹Ð ¹-Ð ¿Ã'€Ð µÃ' Ã'‚Ð °Ã'€Ã'‹Ð ¹ Ð ¡Ã'‚Ð °Ã'€Ð µÃ ½Ã'Å'Ð ºÃ ¸Ã ¹-Ð ¿Ã'€Ð µÃ' Ã'‚Ð °Ã'€Ð µÃ ½Ã'Å'Ð ºÃ ¸Ã ¹ All the mentioned tools for diminution are not characteristic of English language, which increases the level of complexity of Russian for those studying it as a second language. The var ious suffixes and prefixes of different meanings in Russian are replaced by separate additional words like â€Å"very† or â€Å"rather† in English, which illustrates one of the key differences between the use of adjectives in different stylistic contexts in the two languages. Besides diminution, different stylistic contexts demand the effect of exaggeration from adjectives, which is also realized in Russian with the help of certain suffixes. To the most often used ones belong the suffixes Ã'Æ'Ã'‰, Ã'ŽÃ'‰, and Ð µÃ ½Ã ½ (9): БÐ ¾Ã »Ã'Å'Ã'ˆÐ ¾Ã ¹ (big) – Ð ±Ã ¾Ã »Ã'Å'Ã'ˆÃ'Æ'Ã'‰Ð ¸Ã ¹ Ð ¥Ã ¸Ã'‚Ã'€Ã'‹Ð ¹ (foxy) – Ã'…Ð ¸Ã'‚Ã'€Ã'ŽÃ'‰Ð ¸Ã ¹ Ð ¡Ã'‚Ã'€Ð °Ã'ˆÐ ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ (scary) – Ã' Ã'‚Ã'€Ð °Ã'ˆÐ ½Ã'ŽÃ'‰Ð ¸Ã ¹ ДÐ ¾Ã'€Ð ¾Ã ³Ã ¾Ã ¹ (expensive) – Ð ´Ã ¾Ã'€Ð ¾Ã ³Ã'Æ'Ã'‰Ð ¸Ã ¹ Ð ¨Ã ¸Ã'€Ð ¾Ã ºÃ ¸Ã ¹ (wide) – Ã'ˆÐ ¸Ã'€Ð ¾Ã'‡Ð µÃ ½Ã ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ Ð ¡Ã'‚Ð °Ã'€Ã'‹Ð ¹ (old) – Ã' Ã'‚Ð °Ã'€Ð µÃ ½Ã ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ БÐ ¾Ã ³Ã °Ã'‚Ã'‹Ð ¹ (rich) – Ð ±Ã ¾Ã ³Ã °Ã'‚Ð µÃ ½Ã ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ Again, there are no such correspondent affixes in English, where the effect of exaggeration is usually achieved with the help of particles â€Å"too† or â€Å"very† put before the adjective. Deriving adverbs For the adjectives of both Russian and English languages it is typical to form adverbs with the help of certain derivative affixes. This process is usually realized in English language with the help of suffix ly, which corresponds to the Russian suffix o. However, while the derivation of adverbs in English demands simply adding the suffix, in Russian it is necessary to remove the ending first, and the suffix is added to the bare root. Let us consider some examples (10): Noun Adverb quick quickly Ð ±Ã'‹Ã' Ã'‚Ã'€Ã'‹Ð ¹ Ð ±Ã'‹Ã' Ã'‚Ã'€Ð ¾ interesting interestingly Ð ¸Ã  ½Ã'‚Ð µÃ'€Ð µÃ' Ã ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ Ð ¸Ã ½Ã'‚Ð µÃ'€Ð µÃ' Ã ½Ã ¾ abrupt abruptly Ã'€Ð µÃ ·Ã ºÃ ¸Ã ¹ Ã'€Ð µÃ ·Ã ºÃ ¾ It is worth denoting that derivation of adverbs is a property of qualitative, and not relational adjectives, in both languages. Semantics of adjectives As it is known, according to their meaning, adjectives can be divided into qualitative and relational. The former ones denote a certain quality of the object they modify, while the latter point to the relations between words (Levine, 2009). This subdivision is typical of both English and Russian adjectives, and it determines the meaning of these adjectives. However, the semantic functions of adjectives in English and in Russian are quite different. For instance, according to (Ikeya, 1995), in English adjectives are â€Å"basically a one-place predicate†. This explains the wide use of prepositional phrases which consist of an adjective and a preposition in English. Such phrases do not exist in Russian, where the system of prepositions is poorer and less significant. For this language it is more characteristic to have the adjectives strictly following or preceding the word they modify. This means the use of both attributive and predicative adjectives, which I also practiced in English. Therefore, some of the following adjective uses can be met in both languages, while the stable prepositional phrases are typical only of English language (11): It is a typicalmistake. Ð ­Ã'‚Ð ¾ Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã ¿Ã ¸Ã'‡Ð µÃ' Ã ºÃ °Ã' Ã ¾Ã'ˆÐ ¸Ã ±Ã ºÃ °. This mistake is typical. Ð ­Ã'‚Ð ° Ð ¾Ã'ˆÐ ¸Ã ±Ã ºÃ ° Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã ¿Ã ¸Ã'‡Ð µÃ' Ã ºÃ °Ã' . It is typical ofher to do so. – This is a goodboy. Ð ­Ã'‚Ð ¾ Ã'…Ð ¾Ã'€Ð ¾Ã'ˆÐ ¸Ã ¹Ã ¼Ã °Ã »Ã'Å'Ã'‡Ð ¸Ã º. This boy is good. Ð ­Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã'‚ Ð ¼Ã °Ã »Ã'Å'Ã'‡Ð ¸Ã º Ã'…Ð ¾Ã'€Ð ¾Ã'ˆÐ ¸Ã ¹/Ã'…Ð ¾Ã'€Ð ¾Ã'ˆ. It is good forhealth to jog. – This person is happy. Ð ­Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã'‚ Ã'‡Ð µÃ »Ã ¾Ã ²Ã µÃ º Ã' Ã'‡Ð °Ã' Ã'‚Ð »Ã ¸Ã ²Ã'‹Ð ¹/Ã' Ã'‡Ð °Ã' Ã'‚Ð »Ã ¸Ã ². This is a happy person. Ð ­Ã'‚Ð ¾ Ã' Ã'‡Ð °Ã' Ã'‚Ð »Ã ¸Ã ²Ã'‹Ð ¹Ã'‡Ð µÃ »Ã ¾Ã ²Ã µÃ º. I am happy tohelp you. – Apart from the semantic functions of adjectives, it is worth mentioning that many adjectives in English and Russian have more than one meaning, which means that they are polysemic. This quality is best realized in certain contextual environments, as far as besides the actual meanings there can be some denotative meanings, derived from certain cultural situations and beliefs. Obviously, only native speakers are capable of distinguishing the full range of meanings of one adjective, as far as it demands a deep knowledge of the cultural background of the spoken language. Let us consider several examples, which show how the multiple meanings of an adjective can coincide or differ in the two langu ages (12): Adjective Meanings poor not rich unhappy Ð ±Ã µÃ ´Ã ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ not rich unhappy blue of the color of the sky melancholy conservative (in Politics) Ð ³Ã ¾Ã »Ã'Æ'Ð ±Ã ¾Ã ¹ of the color of the sky homosexual wooden made of wood awkward in movement Ð ´Ã µÃ'€Ð µÃ ²Ã' Ã ½Ã ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ made of wood insensitive bad oriented in some area warm of high temperature enthusiastic containing yellow or red color Ã'‚Ã'‘Ð ¿Ã »Ã'‹Ð ¹ of high temperature enthusiastic pleasant containing yellow or red color the one that is heated (of a room) Syntactical peculiarities of adjectives It is a well-known fact that morphology, semantics, and syntax are tightly connecter to each other, as far as the structure of the word is always interdependent with its meaning and use in sentences. However, while the morphological and semantic features are lying on the surface of a language, the syntactical relations between words dem and a much deeper analysis. From the syntactical point of view, English adjectives are much simpler than the Russian ones. Indeed, an adjective in English does not change its form, regardless of the word it modifies. In contrast to this, Russian adjectives have to agree with the noun they modify in gender, number, and case (Levine, 2009). Agreement in gender Formally, there are three genders in both English and Russian languages; however, in English the property of one of the cases is only expressed by the pronouns he, she, it. The other parts of speech have no morphological features denoting gender. In comparison with English, Russian morphology provides a number of endings available to denote all three genders. For instance, feminine gender is expressed by the endings –Ð °, –Ã' , -Ð °Ã' , masculine – by the endings –Ã'‹Ð ¹, –Ð ¸Ã ¹, and neuter gender – with the ending –Ð µ. The situation becomes even more complicated consi dering that in Russian the division into genders is applied more often than in English. For instance, in English the abstract notions (like happiness, love, feeling), inanimate objects, animals, and many other words are of neuter gender, which determines referring to them as to â€Å"it†. In Russian practically all the notions have a certain gender, and the adjectives need to agree with them, which makes the task of forming a correct phrase of a combination of an adjective and a noun even more difficult. Let us compare some phrases of English and Russian (13): Hard life (neut) Ð ¢Ã' Ã ¶Ã'‘Ð »Ã °Ã' Ã ¶Ã ¸Ã ·Ã ½Ã'Å' (fem) Happy puppy (neut) Ð ¡Ã'‡Ð °Ã' Ã'‚Ð »Ã ¸Ã ²Ã'‹Ð ¹Ã'‰Ð µÃ ½Ã ¾Ã º (masc) Round plate (neut) КÃ'€Ã'Æ'Ð ³Ã »Ã °Ã' Ã'‚Ð °Ã'€Ð µÃ »Ã ºÃ ° (fem) Green grass (neut) Ðâ€"Ð µÃ »Ã µÃ ½Ã °Ã' Ã'‚Ã'€Ð °Ã ²Ã ° (fem) Kind boy (masc) ДÐ ¾Ã ±Ã'€Ã'‹Ð ¹Ã ¼Ã °Ã »Ã'Å'Ã'‡Ð ¸Ã º (masc) Beau tiful girl (fem) КÃ'€Ð °Ã' Ã ¸Ã ²Ã °Ã' Ã ´Ã µÃ ²Ã ¾Ã'‡Ð ºÃ ° (fem) Agreement in number Besides the property of gender, the adjectives both in Russian can be of singular and plural number. In English this subdivision is implied, but no obvious features of plurality or singularity are present. In Russian, the feature of plurality is expressed by the endings –Ã'‹Ð µ, –Ð ¸Ã µ. Correspondingly, when an adjective modifies a noun or pronoun, it should be of the same number as the word. Agreement in case The last important aspect in adjectival agreement with the modified word is the agreement in case. Similarly to the gender and number, English adjectives do not demand this kind of agreement to be realized. In contrast, Russian adjectives have to be of the same case as the words they modify. As it was mentioned before, Russian language offers seven cases instead those four of English, which means that there are more forms of adjectives, specifically their endings, depending on the case they are used in. What is more, the declension of adjectives is highly dependent on the consonant they are ending in. For instance, the adjectives with the stems ending in hard, soft, and unpaired consonants will have slight differences in endings changes in the process of declension (Levine, 2007). Let us consider each type separately. An adjective, which has its stem ending in a hard consonant will have the following form of declension (the empty boxes denote the same form as on the left) (14): Case/Gender Masculine Neuter Feminine Plural Nominative Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã ¾Ã ¹ Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã ¾Ã µ Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã °Ã'  Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã'‹Ð µ Accusative Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã ¾Ã ³Ã ¾ Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã ¾Ã ¹ Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã'‹Ð ¼Ã ¸ Genitive Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã ¾Ã ³Ã ¾ Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã ¾Ã ¹ Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã'‹Ã'… Prepositive Ð ¾ Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã ¾Ã ¼ Ð ¾ Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã ¾Ã ¹ Ð ¾ Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã'‹Ã'… Dative Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã ¾Ã ¼Ã'Æ' Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã ¾Ã ¹ Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã'‹Ð ¼ Instrumentative Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã'‹Ð ¼ Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã ¾Ã ¹ Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã'‹Ð ¼Ã ¸ Locative Ð ² Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã ¾Ã ¼ Ð ² Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã ¾Ã ¹ Ð ² Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ´Ã'‹Ã'… The stems ending in a soft consonant will have different forms (15): Case/Gender Masculine Neuter Feminine Plural Nominative Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã ¸Ã ¹ Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã µÃ µ Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã' Ã'  Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã ¸Ã µ Accusative Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã ¸Ã ¼ Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã'ŽÃ'Ž Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã ¸Ã'… Genitive Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã µÃ ³Ã ¾ Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã µÃ ¹ Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã ¸Ã'… Prepositive Ð ¾ Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã µÃ ¼ Ð ¾ Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã µÃ ¹ Ð ¾ Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã ¸Ã'… Dative Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã µÃ ¼Ã'Æ' Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã µÃ ¹ Ð »Ã µÃ'‚ Ð ½Ã ¸Ã ¼Ã ¸ Instrumentative Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã ¸Ã ¼ Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã µÃ ¹ Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã ¸Ã ¼Ã ¸ Locative Ð ² Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã µÃ ¼ Ð ² Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã µÃ ¹ Ð ² Ð »Ã µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã ¸Ã'… In case a stem of an adjective ends in an unpaired consonant, the endings in declension will be the following (16): Case/Gender Masculine Neuter Feminine Plural Nominative Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð ¸Ã ¹ Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð ¾Ã µ Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð °Ã'  Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð ¸Ã µ Accusative Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð ¾Ã ³Ã ¾ Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ã'Æ'Ã'Ž Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð ¸Ã'… Genitive Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð ¾Ã ³Ã ¾ Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð ¾Ã ¹ Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð ¸Ã'… Prepositive Ð ¾ Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð ¾Ã ¼ Ð ¾ Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð ¾Ã ¹ Ð ¾ Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð ¸Ã'… Dative Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð ¾Ã ¼Ã'Æ' Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð ¾Ã ¹ Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð ¸Ã ¼ Instrumentative Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð ¸Ã ¼ Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð ¾Ã ¹ Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð ¸Ã ¼Ã ¸ Locative Ð ² Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð ¾Ã ¼ Ð ² Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð ¾Ã ¹ Ð ² Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'…Ð ¸Ã'… Pedagogical implications and applications As it can be seen from the presented study, the structures of English and Russian languages differ greatly. Therefore, while analyzing the adjectives of the two languages, all the differences in morphological, semantic, and syntactic structures have to be taken into consideration. The divergence of forms and meanings of Russian adjectives suggests that a teacher should not expect an easy perception of all the information about the Russian language by the students who learn it. First of all, in order to teach students to use Russian adjectives, the teacher should explain the students the property of gender. It is extremely important for the students to learn the basic endings typical of neuter, feminine, and masculine gender. Indeed, this knowledge will allow them not only to use the adjectives correctly, but also to recognize their belonging to a certain gender group in written and spoken forms , which means the increasing of language comprehension. In order to develop these skills in students, it is possible to offer them an exercise based on choosing an appropriate ending for a certain adjective, depending on the gender of the word it modifies. Gapped sentences or phrases can be very helpful in this case. The teacher should bear in mind the wide use of neuter gender in English, which is not observed in Russian. Due to this fact, students may find it difficult to get oriented in the Russian words in respect to their gender. Therefore, some exercises comparing the words of different genders in English and Russian can be developed. Declension of Russian adjectives is another problematic point, which can make the process of learning Russian complicated. The tables containing the needed examples and clear explanation of the material are the only tools that can be used in this case. The tables can be hung in the class room, in order to allow the students use it as a template w hile learning Russian adjectives. Only practical tasks can lead to the automatic use of adjectives in the right form. It is also important for the learners of Russian to know how to form different degrees of comparison. Since the rules of comparative and superlative forms formation in most cases coincide in English and Russian, it is enough to demonstrate the students the parallel constructions and offer them to practice on their own. The same method can be used to explain the position of adjectives in the sentence, which often is similar in the two languages. The use of short and long forms seems to cause no problems for the students, as far as the both forms have the same meanings. The long forms are with no doubt dominant, and play a greater grammatical role; however, in order to achieve a high level of Russian language use and comprehension, the students should know how to use the both forms. This knowledge can be derived from reading Russian literature, where both short and lon g forms of adjectives are being used. In this way, clear comprehension will turn into correct use in the future. As for the meanings of Russian adjectives, it is almost impossible to explain them all in a short course. However, in order to broaden the perception of the language by the students, it is necessary to give them idiomatic structures, phraseological units, and the adjectives used in proverbs and sayings. This will demonstrate the students the fact that there is more than one possible meaning for one adjective, and that in order to understand all the denotative meanings, an understanding of cultural environment of the language is needed. Conclusion This paper investigated the differences and similarities between the Russian and English adjectives, their forms and use. It is based on the broad analysis of the structures of the two languages, and on the deep analysis of an adjective as of a part of speech. The analysis of such aspects, as morphology, semantics, and syntax sho wed the relatively complicated nature of Russian adjectives comparing to the English ones. Wide use of affixes, change of endings depending on number, gender, case, stem ending, – all these features are untypical of English, and characteristic of Russian adjectives. This makes the gap between the languages deeper than that perceived on the general level, and sometimes proves an impediment to learning Russian for English-speaking people. Understanding of these differences is the condition needed for understanding the languages, and, as a consequence, for proper translation. The investigation showed that the problems with Russian adjectives most often occur because of their changing endings. Declension of Russian adjectives plays an outstanding role in the spoken and written language, and automatic correct use of the different forms is crucial for language use and comprehension. That is why, clear explanation of the rules should be combined with the methodologically suited prac tical tasks for effective learning of this part of speech. All these aspects should be taken into consideration by the pedagogical stuff dealing with teaching Russian. However, this study embraces only the main spheres of differences in the languages. Besides the studied problems, there are also archaic and borrowed forms, which have different rules of use in Russian. What is more, the field of semantics is so wide, that its analysis obviously cannot be limited with that presented in this paper. Adjective in practical use can be related to many other parts of speech. The relations of adjectives with nouns, verbs, pronouns, prepositions, as well as the role of adjectives in the sentence are the possible ways of investigation. In addition, while this study is focused on the differences between the adjectives of English and Russian, it could be useful to look for similarities between them. This would make it easier to understand the use of adjectives in each language and to learn one o f them as a second language. Reference List Asarina, A (2009). Gender and Adjective Agreement in Russian. Moscow: SLS 4th Annual Meeting. Ikeya, A (1995). Predicate-Argument Structure of English Adjectives. Amsterdam: Toyo Gakuen University. Ivanov, V, Browne, W (2007). Slavonic Languages. R. K. P. Web. Levine, J (2009). Shaum’s Outline of Russian Grammar, 2nd Edition. NY: Mcgraw Hill. Matushansky, O (2006). How to Be Short: Some Remarks on the Syntax of Russian Adjectives. Paris: IUMR Seminar. Sihombing, K (2008). The Morphological Processes of English Adjectives. A Thesis. Faculty of Letters: English Department. Depok: Gunadarma University. Sussex, R, Cubberley, P (2006) The Slavic Languages. In Cubberley, P (2006) Russian: A Linguistic Introduction. London: Cambridge University Press. This term paper on English vs. Russian Adjectives was written and submitted by user Jason Day to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Free Essays on Salvation In Unexpected Ways

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Network Intrusion Detection and Forensics Dissertation

Network Intrusion Detection and Forensics - Dissertation Example The paper tells that computers have come to assume in all aspects of our lives, and the lack of reliable networks in modern computing environments in plainly inconceivable. The supremacy of information technology in running many modern systems hinges on the continued reliability of computer networks. Without stable computer network systems, many simple computing activities we have come to assume as part of our daily routines: sending emails, browsing the web, making business communications, and maintaining social contacts would be in severe jeopardy. Malicious use of computer networks would completely compromise our computing experience and the utilization of these indispensable network tools. Network Intrusion Detection Systems (NIDS) are partly the reason behind the continued security in computer systems around the world. The NIDS systems detect illicit use of computer networks, alert network administrators, create reports in the system through their logging abilities, and try to p revent harm to the network by malevolent network users. However, many users of computer networks lack access to decent NIDS systems available commercially. Part of the reason why many computer users stave off the commercially available NIDS systems is the prohibitively costs. Another reason for the unattractiveness of several commercial network-based IDS is traceable to their complex deployment, configuration, and implementation procedures, which normally require technical assistance. Over the past decade, open source NIDS systems have come to define the NIDS landscape. Currently, the leading NIDS system in terms of user base been Snort, a lightweight open source NIDS. The purpose of this project is to make comprehensive comparison of two open source NIDS, Snort and Bro. Keywords: Snort, Bro, NIDS, Table of Contents Abstract 2 Table of Contents 3 1.INTRODUCTION 4 2.BACKGROUND TO THE PROBLEM 5 3.OVERVIEW OF NETWORK INTRUSION DETECTION SYSTEMS 5 3.1 The Roles of NIDS 5 3.2 Difference of NIDS with Firewalls 7 3.3 Limitations of the Network Intrusion Detection Systems 7 3.4 Network Intrusion and Detection System Alert Terminologies 8 4.RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN INTRUSION DETECTION SYSTEMS 9 5.DIFFERENT METHODS OF INTRUSION DETECTION 10 5.1 Statistical Anomaly-Based Intrusion System 10 5.2 Signature-Based Intrusion Detection 10 6.NETWORK INTRUSION DETECTION SYSTEMS 11 6.1 Snort 11 6.2 Bro 11 6.3 PHAD 11 6.4 NetSTAT 12 6.5 EMERALD 12 6.6 Suricata 13 7.TESTING AND EVALUATION METHODOLOGY 13 8.ANALYSIS OF SNORT AND BRO 14 8.3 Common Characteristics of Snort, Bro, Suricata, and NetSTAT 16 8.4 Differences between Snort, Bro, Suricata, and NetSTAT 17 8.5 Major Strengths of Snort 19 8.6 Major strengths of Bro 21 8.7 Major strengths of Suricata 21 8.8 Major strengths of NetSTAT 22 8.9 Major Weaknesses of Snort 22 8.10 Major Weaknesses of Bro 22 8.11 Major weaknesses of Suricata 23 8.12 Major weaknesses of NetSTAT 23 9. RESULTS FOR SNORT AND BRO 23 9.1 Capabilities of Snort and Bro to Identify Security Threats and Network Violations 23 9.1.1 Bro Architecture 23 9.1.2 Bro Network Intrusion Detection Mechanism 25 9.1.3 Snort Architecture 26 9.1.4 Snort Network Intrusion Detection Mechanism 26 9.1.5 Suricata’s Network Intrusion Mechanism 27 9.1.6 NetSTAT Capabilities to detect security threats and network violations 28 9.2 Comparison of Snort’s, Bro’s, Suricata’s and NetSTAT’s Performance 28 10. RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS 29 10.1 Recommendations 29 10.2 Conclusions 30 References 33 1. INTRODUCTION The essentiality of network protection is unquestionable, especially with the ever-growing relevance of computer networks in many facets of our society. Many things, ranging from trade, governance, education, communication, and research rely heavily on computer networks. The vulnerability of networks to breakdowns after attack can be expensive and disastrous.